North Carolina
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Bear River Indians. A body of Indians mentioned by Lawson and
associated with Algonquian tribes. They may have been a part of
the Machapunga (q. v.). Rights (1947) calls them the Bear River
or Bay River Indians. Lawson (1709) gives the name of their town
as Raudauqua-quank and estimates the number of their fighting men
at 50. Mooney (1928) places them with the Pamlico in his estimate
as of the year 1600 and gives the two a population of 1,000. (See
also California for another tribe of the same name.)
Cape Fear Indians. Named from Cape Fear, their native designation
being unknown or indeed whether they were an independent tribe or
a part of some other.
Connections.- No words of the language of the Cape Fear Indians
have been preserved, but early references clearly associate them
with the eastern Siouan tribes, and they may have been a part of
the Waccamaw, since Waccamaw River heads close to Cape Fear. They
would then have been connected with the Siouan linguistic family
and probably with the southern Atlantic division of which Catawba
is the typical member.
Location.- On Cape Fear River, as above stated. (See also South
Carolina.)
Villages
The only village mentioned by name is Necoes, about 20 miles from
the mouth of Cape Fear River, probably in Brunswick County. In
1715 five villages were reported.
History.- While the Cape Fear Indians were probably met hy
several of the early voyagers, our first specific notice of them
comes from the narratives of a New England colony planted on Cape
Fear River in 1661. These settlers seized some of the Indian
children and sent them away under pretense of instructing them in
the ways of civilization and were themselves in consequence
driven off. In 1663 a colony from Barbados settled here but soon
left. In 1665 a third colony established itself at the mouth of
Oldtown Creek in Brunswick County, on the south side of the
river, on land bought from the Indians, but, though the latter
were friendly, like the others this attempt at settlement was
soon abandoned. They were visited by Capt. William Hilton in
1663. In 1695 they asked to be taken under the protection of
Governor Archdale. The protection was granted and shortly
afterward they rescued 52 passengers from a wrecked New England
vessel who formed the nucleus of Christ Church Parish north of
Cooper River. A few Cape Fear Indians accompanied Barnwell on his
Tuscarora expedition in 1711-12. They were active in his behalf
as scouts and also guarded the region around Port Royal. After
the Yamasee War they were removed to South Carolina and settled
inland from Charleston, probably in Williamsburg County (Milling,
1940). In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a remnant of
this tribe and the Pedee lived in the Parishes of St. Stephens
and St. Johns under a chief called King John. By 1808 only a
half-breed woman remained of these two tribes, though others may
have removed to the
Catawba.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates a population of 1,000 Cape
Fear Indians in 1600. The census of 1715, above mentioned, gives
206. In 1808 White neighbors remembered when as many as 30 Pedee
and Cape Fear Indians lived in their old territories.
Catawba. This tribe occupied parts of southwestern North Carolina
near Catawba River. (See South Carolina.)
Ckeraw. Significance unknown. Also called:
Ani'-Suwa'li, Cherokee name
Saraw, Suali, synonyms even more common than Cheraw.
Xuala, Xualla, Spanish and Portuguese forms of the word,
the x being intended for sh.
Connections.- The Cheraw are classed on circumstantial grounds in
the Siouan linguistic family though no words of their tongue have
been preserved.
Location.- The earliest known location of the Cheraw appears to
have been near the head of Saluda River in Pickons and Oconee
Counties, S. C., whence they removed at an early date to the
present Henderson, Polk, and Rutherford Counties.
Villages
The names given are always those of the tribe, though we have a
"Lower Saura Town" and an "Upper Saura Town" on a map dating from
1760.
History.- Mooney (1928) has shown that the Cheraw are identical
with the Xuala province which De Soto entered in 1540, remaining
about 4 days. They were visited by Pardo at a later date, and
almost a hundred years afterward Lederer (1912) heard of them in
the same region. Before 1700 they left their old country and
moved to the Dan River near the southern line of Virginia, where
they seem to have had no distinct settlements about 30 miles
apart. About the year 1710, on account of constant Iroquois
attacks, they moved southeast and joined the Keyauwee. The
colonists of North Carolina, being dissatisfied at the proximity
of these and other tribes, Governor Eden declared war against the
Cheraw, and applied to Virginia for assistance. This Governor
Spotswood refused, as he believed the Carolinians were the
aggressors, but the contest was prosecuted by the latter until
after the Yamasee War. During this period complaint was made that
the Cheraw were responsible for most of the deprodations
committed north of Santee River and they were accused of trying
to draw the coast tribes into an alliance with them. It was
asserted also that arms were being supplied them from Virginia.
The Cheraw were then living upon the upper course of the Great
Pee Dee, near the line between the two colonies and in the later
Cheraw district of South Carolina. Being still subject to attack
by the Iroquois, they finally- between 1726 and 1739- became
incorporated with the Catawba, with whom at an earlier date they
had been at enmity. In 1759 a party joined the English in their
expedition against Fort Duquesne, but the last notice of them is
in 1768 when the remnant was still living with the Catawba.
Population.- During the Spanish period the Cheraw appear to have
been of considerable importance but no estimate of their numbers
has come down to us. Mooney (1928) gives 1,200 as a probable
figure for the year 1600. The census of 1715 gives 140 men and a
total of 510, probably including the Keyauwee and perhaps some
other tribes. In 1768 the survivors numbered 50 to 60.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Cheran are
famous as one of the few tribes in the Carolinas mentioned by De
Soto's chroniclers which can be identified and located with fair
precision. They were noted later for their persistent hostility
to the English and have left their name in Suwali Gap in the Blue
Ridge Mountains, N. C.; in Saura Town Mountains, Stokes County,
N. C.; in the town of Cheraw, Chesterfield County, S. C.; and
possibly in the Uwaharrie River and Uwaharrie Mountains of North
Carolina. There is a locality named Cheraw in Otero County, Colo.
Cherokee. The Cherokee lived in the mountainous parts of the
State in the west. (See Tennessee.)
Chowanoc. Meaning in Algonquian "(people) at the south."
Connections.- The Chowanoc belonged to the Algonquian linguistic
family and were evidently most nearly allied to the other North
Carolina Algonquians.
Location.- On Chowan River about the junction of Meherrin and
Blackwater Rivers.
Villages
Maraton, on the east bank of Chowan River in Chowan County.
Ohnnoak, on the west side of Chowan River not far below Nottoway
River probably in Hertford County.
Catoking, (probably) near Gateville, in Gates County.
Metocaum, on Chowan River in the present Bertie County.
Ramushonok, apparently between the Mehemn and Nottoway Rivers in
Hertford County.
History.- In 1584-85, when first known to Europeans, the Chowanoc
were the leading tribe in northeastern North Carolina. In 1663
they entered into a treaty with the English by which they
submitted to the English Crown, but they violated this in 1675
and after a year of warfare were compelled to confine themselves
to a reservation on Bennett's Creek which became reduced by 1707
from 12 square miles to 6. They sided with the colonists in the
Tuscarora War, and at about the same time were visited by a
Church of England missionary, Giles Rainsford. In 1723 a
reservation of 53,000 acres was set aside for them conjointly
with the Tuscarora and in 1733 they were given permission to
incorporate with that tribe. They continued to decline in numbers
until in 1755 Governor Dobbs stated that only 2 men and 3 women
were left.
Population.- In 1584-85 one of the Chowanoc towns, Ohanoak, was
said to contain 700 warriors, and Mooney (1928) estimates their
numbers at about 1,500 in 1,600. In 1707 they were reduced to one
town with about 15 fighting men, but at the end of the Tuscarora
War their numbers were placed at 240. In 1731 less than 20
families were reported and by 1755 only 5 individuals, as above
noted.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Chowanoc seem to
have been the most powerful Algonquian tribe south of the
Powhatan. Their memory is preserved in the names of Chowan River
and Chowan County, and in the designation of a small post office
in the county of the name, all in North Carolina.
Coree, or Coranine. Meaning unknown.
Connections.- As the final stage of the Coree existence was
passed with an Algonquian tribe, some have thought that the
affiliations of this people were also Algonquian. On the other
hand Lawson (1960) notes that their language and that of a tribe
to the north were mutually intelligible and there is reason for
thinking that this northern tribe belonged to the Iroquois
Confederacy. At least the Coree were closely associated in many
ways with the Iroquoian Tuscarora.
Location.- On the peninsula south of Neuse River in Carteret and
Craven Counties.
Villages
Coranine, probably on the coast in Carteret County.
Narhantes, among the Tuscarora, 30 miles from Newbern.
Raruta, probably on the coast of Carteret County, south of Neuse
River.
History. - When the Coree and the Whites first met is unknown, but
they appear in the records of the Raleigh colony under the name
Cwarennoc. They were greatly reduced before 1696 in a war with
another people. They took part with the Tuscarora in their war
against the colonists, and in 1715 the remnant of them and what
was left of the Machapunga were assigned a reservation on
Mattamuskeet Lake in Hyde County, where they occupied one
village, probably until they became extinct. A few of them appear
to have remained with the Tuscarora.
Population.- The population of this tribe and the Neusiok was
estimated by Mooney (1928) at 1,000 in 1600. In 1707 Lawson says
they had 25 fighting men and were living in 2 villages No later
enumeration is known.
Connection in which they have become noted.- Although some
distance from the Coree country, Core Greek Stalion in Craven
County, N. C., may perpetuate the name of the Coree.
Eno. Significance unknown, but Speck suggests i'nare, "to
dislike," whence, "mean," "contemptible"; yeni'nare, "People
disliked,"
Haynokes, synonym from Yardley (1654).
Connections.- The Eno were probably of the Siouan linguistic
stock, though, on account of certain peculiarities attributed to
them, Mooney (1895) casts some doubt upon this. Their nearest
relatives were the Shakori.
Location.- On Eno River in the present Orange and Durham
Counties. (See also South Carolina.)
Villages
The only village name recorded, distinct from that of the tribe,
is Adshusheer, a town which they shared with the Shakori. It is
located by Mooney (1928) near the present Hillsboro. Lawson
(1860) speaks in one place as if it were a the but as there is no
other mention of it, it is more likely that it was simply the
name of the town which the Eno and Shakori occupied.
History.- The Eno are first mentioned by Governor Yeardley of
Virginia, who was told that they had valiantly resisted the
northward advance of the Spaniards. From this it appears possible
that they had formerly lived upon the Enoree River in South
Carolina, which lay on the main trail from St. Helena to the
Cheraw country at the foot of the Appalachian Mountains. Lederer
(1912) mentions them in 1671 and Lawson (1860) in 1701 when they
and the Shakori were in the town of Adshusheer. About 1714,
together with the Shakori, Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, and
Keyauwee, they began to move toward the Virginia settlements. In
1716 Governor Spotswood of Virginia proposed to settle the Eno,
Cheraw, and Keyuawee at Eno town "on the very frontiers" of North
Carolina but the project was defeated by the latter province on
the ground that all three tribes were then at war with South
Carolina. From the records it is not clear whether this Eno town
was the old settlement or a new one nearer the Albemarle
colonists. Owing to the defeat of this plan, the Eno moved into
South Carolina. Presumably they finally united with the Catawba,
among whom, Adair (1930) states, their dialect was still spoken
in 1743.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates the combined Eno, Shakori,
and Adshusheer at 1,500 in 1,600. In 1714 the Eno, Shnkori,
Tutelo, Snponi. Occaneechi, and Keyauwee totaled 750. There is no
other record of their numbers.
Connection in which they have become noted.- In marked
distinction from their neighbors, the Eno had taken to A trading
life. Their name was given to Eno River in Orange and Durham
Counties, N. C., and perhaps to a place called Enno in the
southwestern part of Wake County, and to Enoree River in South
Carolina (see above), as also to a post village near the last
mentioned.
Hatteras. Meaning unknown.
Connections.- The Hatteras belonged to the Algonquian linguistic
family.
Location.- Among the sandbanks about Cape Hatteras east of
Pamlico Sound and frequenting Roanoke Island.
Village
Sandbanks, on Hatteras Island.
History.- Lawson (1860) thought the Hatteras showed traces of
White blood and therefore they may have been the Croatan Indians
with whom Raleigh's colonists are supposed to have taken refuge.
They disappeared soon after as a distinct tribe and united with
the mainland Algonquians. In 1761, the Rev. Alex. Stewart
baptized 7 Indians and mixed-blood children of the "Attamuskeet,
Hatteras, and Roanoke" tribes and 2 years later he baptized 21
more.
Population.- The Hatteras population has been estimated with the
Machapunga and other tribes at 1,200 in 1600; they had 16
warriors in 1701, or a total population of about 80.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The possible
connection of the Hatteras with the Croatan has been mentioned
and their name has become perpetuated in the dangerous cape at
the angle of the outer sand islands of their old country.
Keyauwee. Meaning unknown.
Connection.- From the historical affiliations of Keyauwee, they
are presumed to have been of the Siouan linguistic family.
Location.- About the points of meeting of the present Guilford
Davidson, and Randolph Counties. (See also South Carolina.)
Villages
No separately named villages are known.
History.- The Keyauwee do not appear to have been noted by white
men before 1701 when Lawson (1860) found them in a palisaded
village about 30 miles northeast of Yadkin River near the present
Highpoint, Guilford County. At that time they were preparing to
join the Saponi and Tutelo for better protection against their
enemies, and, shortly afterward, together with the last mentioned
tribes, the Occaneechi, and the Shakori, they moved toward the
settlements about Albemarle Sound. As mentioned already, Governor
Spots-wood's project to settle this tribe together with the Eno
and Cheraw at Enotown on the frontier of North Carolina was
foiled by the opposition of the latter colony. The Keyauwee then
moved southward to the Pee Dee along with the Cheraw, and perhaps
the Eno and Shakori. In the Jefferys atlas of 1761 their town
appears close to the boundary line between the two Carolinas.
They do not reappear in any of the historical records but
probably united ultimately in part with the Catawba, while some
of their descendants are represented among the Robeson County
Indians, often miscalled Croatan.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates 500 Keyauwee in 1600. In
1701 they are said to have numbered approximately as many as the
Saponi, but the population of that tribe also is unknown. Shortly
afterward it is stated that the Keyauwee, Tutelo, Saponi,
Occaneechi, and Shakori totaled 750 souls. This is all the
information that we have.
Machapunga. Said to mean "bad dust," or "much dirt," in the
native Algonquian language.
Connections.- The Machapunga belonged to the Algonquian
linguistic stock.
Loction.- In the present Hyde County and probably also in
Washington, Tyrrell, and Dare Counties, and part of Beaufort.
Villages
The only village named is Mattamuskeet (probably on Mattamuskeet
Lake in Hyde County). However, we should probably add Secotan on
the north bank of Pamlico River in Beaufort County, and perhaps
the town of the Bear River Indians (q. v.).
History.- The Machapunga seem to have embraced the larger part of
the descendants of the Seeotan, who lived between Abemarle and
Pamlico Sounds when the Raleigh colony was established on Roanoke
Island (1585-86) though the Pamlico may also have been included
under the same head. They were reduced to a single village by
1701, took part with other Indian tribes of the region in the
Tuscarora War, and at its close were settled on Mattamuskeet Lake
with the Coree. In 1761 a small number were still living in North
Carolina, evidently at the same place, and the Rev. Alex. Stewart
reported that he had baptized seven Indian and mixed-blood
children belonging to the "Attamuskeet, Hatteras, and Roanoke."
On a second visit 2 years later he baptized 21 more.
Population.- The Machapunga are estimated by Mooney (1928) to
have numbered 1,200, including some smaller tribes, in 1600. In
1701 Lawson gives 30 warriors, probably less than 100 souls
(Lawson, 1860). In 1775 there were said to be 8 to 10 on the
mainland and as many more on the off-shore banks. In 1761 the
number of warriors was only 7 or 8. The Bear River Indians
(q. v.) may have combined with these.
Connection in, which they have become noted.- In the form
Maehipongo, the name is applied to a post village in Northampton
County, Va.
Meherrin. This tribe extended across from Virginia into
Northampton and Hertford Counties. (See Virginia.)
Moratok. A place name, but the meaning otherwise unknown.
Connections.- There is little doubt that the Moratok belonged to
the Algonquian linguistic stock and were closely related to the
other Algonquian tribes of the sound region of North Carolina.
Location.- On Roanoke River and apparently on the north side, and
estimated to be 160 miles up the river, though the distance is
evidently reckoned from the Raleigh settlement on Roanoke Island.
Villages
The village bearing the name of the tribe is the only one known.
History.- The sole mention of the Moratok is in the narratives of
the Raleigh expeditions. They were first recognized as an
independent tribe by Mr. Maurice Mook (1943 a).
Population.- Unknown but reported as large.
Natchez. Part of the Natchez Indians sought refuge with the
Cherokee after their tribe had been broken up by the French, and
most of them appear to have lived along Hiwassee River. They
accompanied those Cherokee who moved to Oklahoma and settled on
the western margin of the Cherokee Reservation, where a few of
them retained their language long enough to have it recorded.
(See Mississippi.)
Neusiok. Probably a place name.
Connections.- The form of this name suggests that the Neusiok
were of the Algonquian stock, but they may have been Iroquoian
like their neighbors the Tuscarora and Coree (?).
Location. - On lower Neuse River particularly on the south side,
in Craven and Cartaret Counties.
Villages
Chattooka, on the site of Newbern, and Rouconk, exact location
unknown.
History.- In 1584 Amadas and Barlowe heard of the Neusiok as a
war with the tribes farther north. The later settlers speak of
them as Neuse Indians. They dwindled away rapidly after White
contact and perhaps united finally with the Tuscnrora.
Population.- With the Coree the Neusiok are estimated by Mooney
(1928) at 1,000 in the year 1600. In 1709 they numbered but 15
warriors although occupying two towns.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The name Neusiok is
connected with that of the River Neuse in North Carolina, and a
post village.
Occaneechi. When the Occaneechi lived on Roanoke River, Va., they
probably ranged over into Warren, Halifax, and Northampton
Counties, N. C. In 1701 they were in Orange County, N. C. (See
Virginia.)
Pamlico. Meaning unknown.
Connections.- The Pamlico belonged to the Algonquian linguistic
stock.
Location.- On Pamlico River.
History.- The Pamlico are mentioned by the Raleigh colonists in
1585-86 under the name Pomouik. In 1696 they were almost
destroyed by smallpox. In 1701 Lawson recorded a vocabulary from
them which shows their affiliations to have been as given above
(Lawson, 1860). In 1710 they lived in a single small village.
They took part in the Tuscarora war, and at its close that part
of the Tuscarora under treaty with the English agreed to destroy
them. A remnant of the Pamlico was probably incorporated by the
Tuscarora as slaves.
Population.- The Pamlico are estimated by Mooney (1928), together
with "Bear River" Indians, as 1,000 in 1600. In 1710 they
numbered about 75.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Pamlico have
given their name to or shared it with the largest sound in North
Carolina and a North Carolina county. They are also noteworthy as
having been almost if not quite the most southerly Algonquian
tribe on the Atlantic seaboard, and the most southerly one from
which a vocabulary has been collected.
Saponi. This tribe lived on Yadkin River and in other parts of
the State for a certain period. (See Virginia.)
Shakori. A native name but its significance unknown, though
perhaps the same as Sugari, "stingy or spoiled people," or "of
the river-whose-water-cannot-be drunk." Also called:
Cacores, a misprint.
Connections.- The Shakori belonged to the Siouan linguistic
family, their closest connections being evidently with the
southern division of the Siouan tribes of the East. Barnwell
(1908) identified them with the Sissipahaw (q. v.).
Location.- The Shakori moved so frequently and there is so much
uncertainty regarding their early history, that this is hard to
give, but, as they usually kept company with the Eno, tenancy of
the courses of Shocco and Big Shocco Creeks in the present Vance,
Warren, and Franklin Counties is perhaps the location most
closely connected with them in historic times. (See South
Carolina and Virginia.)
History.- It is possible that tke Shakori gave their name to the
province of Chicora visited by Ayllon and his companions in 1521.
If so, we must suppose that they moved north later in the
sixteenth century or early in the seventeenth, perhaps as a
result of the Pardo expeditions. In 1650 Edward Blande and his
associates found the "Nottoway and Schockoores old fields"
between Meherrin and Nottonay Rivers, but the Indians were not
there. In 1654 Governor Yeardley of Virginia was told by a
Tuscarora Indian of an inland people called the "Cacores,"
probably an attempt to indicate this tribe. In 1672 Lederer found
them living in a village 14 miles from that of the Eno (Lederer,
1912), and in 1701 Lawson says these two tribes (the Shakori and
Eno) were in one village called Adshushecr on Eno River (Lawson,
1860). The later fortunes of the Shakori were bound up with those
of the Eno (q. v.).
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates the Shakori, Eno, and
"Adshusheer" at 1,500 in 1600.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The two creeks,
Shocco and Big Shocco, and a post office 9 miles south of
Warrenton, Warren County, perpetuate the name of the Shakori. If
Chicora refers to the same tribe, it appears prominently in
Spanish narratives of American exploration, particularly because
of the information regarding Indian customs obtained by Peter
Martyr from an Indian, Francisco of Chicora.
Sara, see Cheraw.
Sissipahaw. Meaning unknown.
Connections.- The Sissipahaw were probably of the Siouan
linguistic family though no words of their language are known.
Location.- The principal Sissipahaw settlement appears to have
been about the present Saxapahaw on Haw River in thc lower part
of Alamance County. (See also South Carolina.)
History.- The name of this tribe is possibly preserved in the
Sauxpa mentioned by the Spanish officer Vandera in 1569 as a
place visited by Juan Pardo. Lawson (1860) spoke of them in
connection with his travels through Carolina in 1701, but he did
not visit them. Barnwell (1909) identified them with the Shakori
with whom they were doubtless nearly allied and of whom they may
have been a branch. They united with other tribes of the region
against the English in the Yamasee war of 1715, and later with
other Siouan remnants probably joined the Catawba.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates the Sissipahaw at 800 in
1600. "Haw Old Fields" constituted the largest body of fertile
land in the region.
Connections in which they have become noted.- The name Sissipahaw
has been brought down to our times by Haw River and the towns of
Haw River and Saxapahaw on the same, in Alamance County, N. C.
Sugeree. This tribe occupied parts of Mecklenburg County. (See
South Carolina.)
Tuscarora. From their own name Ska-ru'-ren, signifying according
to Hewitt (in Hodge, 1910), "hemp gatherers," and applied on
account of the great use they made of Apocynum cannabinum. Also
called:
A-ko-t'as'-ka-ro'-ren', Mohawk name.
Ani'-Skala'll, Cherokee name.
A-t'as-ka-lo'-len', Oneida name.
Tewohomomy (or Keew-ahomomy), Saponi name.
Connections.- The Tuscarora belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic
family.
Location.- On the Roanoke, Tar, Pamlico, and Neuse Rivers. (See
also Pennsylvania and New York.)
Subdivisions
The Tusearora should be considered a confederacy with three
tribes or a tribe with three subtribes as follows:
Ka'te'nu'a'ka', "People of the submerged pinetree";
Akawantca'ka', meaning doubtful; and Skaru'ren, "hemp gatheres,"
i. e., the Tuscarora proper.
Villages
The following were in North Carolina, A more precise location not
being possible except in the cases specified:
Annaooka.
Chunaneets.
Cohunche.
Conauhcare.
Contahnah, near the mouth of Neuse River.
Cotechney, on the opposite side of Neuse River from Fort
Barnwell, about the mouth of Contentnea Creek.
Coram.
Corutra.
Harooka.
Harutawaqui.
Kenta.
Kentanuska.
Naurheghne.
Neoheroka, in Greene County.
Nonawharitse.
Nursoorooka.
Oonossoora.
Tasqui, a day's journey from Cotechney on the way to Nottaway
village.
Tonarooka, on a branch of Neuse River between "Fort Narhantes"
and Cotechney.
Torhunte, on a northern affluent of Neuse River.
Tosneoe.
Ucouhnerunt, on Pamlico River, probably in the vicinity of
Greenalle, in Pitt County.
Unanauhan.
Barnwell, with 33 white men and about 500 Indians, marched
against the hostiles, by direction of the colony of South
Carolina, drove them from one of their towns with great loss, and
invested Hencock's own town, Cotechney. But having suffered
severely in two assaults upon the place and fearing lest the
white captives in the hands of the Indians would be killed, he
made peace and returned home. Dissatisfied with the treatment
accorded him by the North Carolina authorities, however, he
violated the treaty during his retreat by seizing some Indians and
sending them away as slaves. This brought on the second Tuscarora
War, 1712-13. South Carolina was again appealed to for
assistance, and Colonel James Moore set out for the north with
about 900 Indians and 33 white men, a number which was
considerably swelled before he reached the seat of trouble. March
20 to 23 he stormed the palisaded town of Neoheroka, inflicting a
loss upon the enemy of about 950. The Tuscarora became so
terrified at this that part of them abandoned Fort Cohunche,
situated at Hencock's town and started north to join their
relatives, the Iroquois. This was only the beginning of the
movement, bands of Tuscarora being noted at intervals as moving
north or as having arrived among the Five Nations. They were
adopted by the Oneida but, contrary to the general impression,
were not granted coordinate rights in the League before September
1722. A part of the Tuscarora under a chief named Tom Blunt (or
Blount), had, however, remained
neutral. They received recognition by the government of North
Carolina, and continued in their former homes under their own
chiefs. In 1766, 155 removed to New York, and the 105 remaining
were brought north in 1802 while a deputation of northem
Tuscarora were in Carolina to obtain payment for the lands they
had formerly occupied. When the Tuscarora first moved north they
were settled at various places along the Susquehanna in
Pennsylvania and in New York, some in the Oneida country itself.
In 1875, by the treaty of Fort Herkimer, the Oneida sold to the
State of New York, the lands in which their adopted children, the
Tuscarora, had settled, and for a time the Tuscarora were
dispersed in various settlements in New York State, and even in
Pennsylvania. At the outbreak of the American Revolution, the
majority of Tuscarora and Oneida espoused the cause of the
colonists and in consequence they were attacked by Indians in the
British interest, including even some of their Iroquois brethren,
their houses were burned, their crops and other property
destroyed, and they themselves scattered. A large band of them
settled, however, at a place called Oyonwayea or Johnson's
Landing, on Lake Ontario. Later a party from this settlement
discovered a place in the northeastern part of the present
Tuscarora Reservation which pleased them so much that they
decided to winter there and they were presently joined by the
rest of the inhabitants of Oyonwayea. At the treaty held at
Genesee, September 15, 1797, between Robert Morris and the Seneca
tribe, Morris reserved to the tribe, by grant, 2 square miles,
covering their new settlements, and the Seneca there-upon granted
them an additional square mile. As a result of their appeal to
the legislature of North Carolina above mentioned, they were able
to lease lands in the south, and they devoted the proceeds to the
purchase of 4,329 acres adjoining their New York reserve. The
Tuscarora who had sided with Great Britain were granted lands
in severalty on Crand River, Ontario.
Population.- There were 5,000 Tuscarora in 1600 according to an
estimate by Mooney (1928). In 1708, Lawson gives 15 towns and
1,200 warriors (Lawson, 1860). Barnwell in 1712 estimates 1,200
to 1,400 fighting men (Barnwell, 1908); Chauvignerie in 1736, 250
warriors, not including those in North Carolina, and on the
Susquehanna and Juniata Rivers (Chauvignerie, in Schoolcraft,
1851-57, vol. 3, p. 556). In 1752 the southern Tuscarora were
said to number 300 men; in 1754 there were said to be 100 men and
200 women and children and these figures are repeated in 1761. In
1766 there were said to be 220 to 230 all told in the south; next
year we read that 155 southern Tuscarora had removed and that 105
remained. Other estimates place the total Tuscarora population at
1,000 in 1765, 2,000 in 1778, 1,000 in 1783, and 400 in 1796. In
1885 there were 828 (evenly divided between New York and Canada).
In 1909 there were 364 in New York and a year later 416 in
Canada, a total of 780. In 1910, 400 were reported in the United
States and in 1923, 376 in New York alone. The number in Canada
is not separately given.
Connection in which they have become noted.- This tribe is noted
historically for its prominence among the peoples of eastern
North Carolina, for the two wars which it waged with the
colonists, and for the rather spectacular migration of the
greater part to the north and its union with the Five Iroquois
Nations. The name Tuscarora occurs applied to settlements in
Frederick County, Md.; Craven County, North Carolina; Schuylkill
County, Pennsylvania; Livingston County, N. Y.; Elko County,
Nev.; and Ontario; and to a creek and mountain in Pennsylvania.
Tutelo. This tribe lived for a while on the upper Yadkin and
later in Bertie County. (See Virginia.)
Waccamaw. They probably ranged across into North Carolina from
the head of Waccamaw River. (See South Carolina.)
Wateree. According to Lederer (1912) they were living in 1670 on
the upper Yadkin. (See South Carolina.)
Waxhaw. They extended over into Union County from South
Carolina. (See South Carolina.)
Weapemeoc. Meaning unknown, but evidently a place name. Also
called:
Yeopim, a shortened and more usual form.
Connections.- The Weapemeoc were almost certainly of the
Algonquian linguistic family and related to the Powhatan Indians
to the north and the Chowan, Machapunga, and Pamlico to the
south.
Location.- Most of the present Currituck, Camden, Pasquotank, and
Perquimans Counties, and part of Chowan County north of Albemarle
Sound.
Subdivisions
In the same section in later times are given the following tribes
which must be regarded as subdivisions of the Weapemeoc:
Pasquotank, on Pasquotank River.
Perquiman, on Perquimans River.
Poteskeet, location uncertain.
Yeopim, or Weapemeoc proper, on Yeopim River.
Villages
Chepanoc, on Albemarle Sound in Perquimans County.
Mascoming, on the north shore of Albemarle Sound, in Chownn
County.
Metachkwem, location unknown.
Pasquenock, perhaps identical with Pasquotank, on the north shore
of Albemarle Sound, perhaps in Camden County.
Weapemeoc, probably in Pasquotank County.
History.- The Weapemeoc first appear in history in the narratives
of the Raleigh colony of 1585-86. Later they are spoken of under
the various subdivisional names. They parted with some of their
land in 1662. In 1701, according to Lawson (1860) only 6 of the
Ycopim survived though there were 40 warriors of the other
subdivisions, including 10 Pasquotank and 30 Potekeet.
Population.- In the time of the Raleigh colony the Weapemeoc are
said to have had between 700 and 800 warriors. They were
estimated by Mooney (1928) at 800 in 1600. From their number as
given by Lawson in 1701 Rights (1947) estimates 200 at that date.
Connection in which they have become noted.- In the form Yeopim
the name has been preserved in that of a railroad station in
Perquimans County, N. C.
Woccon. Significance unknown.
Connections.- The Woccon belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock,
their closest relations being the Catawba.
Location.- Between Neuse River and one of its affluents, perhaps
about the present Goldsboro, Wayne County.
Villages
Tooptatmeer, supposed to have been in Greene County.
Yupwauremau, supposed to have been in Greene County.
History.- The first mention of the Woccon appears to be by Lawson
writing about 1701, who recorded 150 words of their language.
These show that it was nearer Catawba than any other known
variety of speech. Lack of any earlier mention of such a large
tribe lends strength to the theory of Dr. Douglas L. Rights that
they were originally Waccamaw (q. v., under South Carolina) They
took part against the Whites in the Tuscarora Wars and were
probably extinguished as a tribe at that time, the remnant
fleeing north with the Tuscarora, uniting with the Catawba, or
combining with other Siouan remnants in the people later known as
Croatan.
Population.- The number of Woccon was estimated by Mooney (1928)
at 600 in 1600. Lawson (1860) gives 120 warriors in 1709.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The sole claim of
the Woccon to distinction is from the fact that it is the only
one of the southern group of eastern Siouan tribes other than the
Catawba from which a vocabulary has been preserved.
Yadkin. Meaning unknown.
Connections.- The Yadkin probably belonged to the Siouan
linguistic family.
Location.- On Yadkin River.
History.- The Yadkin first appear in history in a letter by the
Indian trader, Abraham Wood, narrating the adventures of two men,
James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, whom he had sent on an
exploring expedition lo the west. They passed this tribe and
town, which they call "Yattken," in the summer of 1674. Lawson
(1860) gives the name as Reatkin but applies it to the river, and
there is no later mention of the people.
Connection in which they have become noted.- Their name Yadkin is
perpetuated by the Yadkin River, Yadkin County, and the towns and
villages of Yadkin College, Yadkin Falls, Yadkin Valley, and
Yadkinville, all in the State of North Carolina.
Yeopim, see Weapemeoc.
North Dakota -
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Arapaho. Certain traditions indicate that the Arapaho at one time
lived in the Red River Valley in what is now Minnesota and North
Dakota, but they had left before the historic period.
(See Wyoming.)
Arikara. Signifying "horns," or "elk," and having reference to
their ancient manner of wearing the hair with two pieces of bone
standing up, one on each side of the crest; -ra is the plural
suffix. Also called:
A da ka' da ho, Hidatsa name
Ah-pen-ope-say, or A-pnn-to'-pse, Crow name
Corn eaters, given as their own name.
Ka'-nan-in, Arapaho name, meaning "people whose jaws break
in pieces."
O-no'-ni-o, Cheyenne name.
Padani, Pani, applied to them by various tribes.
Ree, abbreviation of Arikara.
Sanish, "person," their own name, according to Gilmore (1927).
S'ques'tshi, Salish name.
Star-rah-he' [tstarahi], their own name, according to Lewis
and Clark (1904-05).
Tanish, their own name, meaning "the people," according to
Hayden (1862). Perhaps a misprint of Sanish.
Wa-zi'-ya-ta Pa-da'-nin, Yankton name, meaning "northern
Pawnee."
Connections - The Arikara belonged to the Caddoan linguistic
stock and were a comparatively recent offshoot of the Skidi
Pawnee.
Location - In historic times they have occupied various points
on the Missouri River between Cheyenne River, South Dakota, and
Fort Berthold, North Dakota. (See also Montana and Nebraska.)
Subdivisions and Villages
The Arikara are sometimes spoken of as a confederacy of smaller
tribes each occupying its own village, and one account mentions
10 of these, while Gilmore (1927) furnishes the names of 12,
including 4 of major importance under which the others were
grouped. These were as follows:
Awshu, associated with which were Hokat and Scirihauk.
Hukawirat, with which were associated Warihka and Nakarik.
Tukatuk, with which were associated Teininatak and Witauk.
Tukstanu, with which were associated Nakanusts and Nispst.
Earlier sources give other names which do not agree with these:
Hachepiriinu.
Hia.
Hosukhaunu, properly the name of a dance society.
Hosukhaunukarerihu, properly the name of a dance society.
Kaka.
Lohoocat, the name of a town in the time of Lewis and Clark.
Okos.
Paushuk.
Sukhutit.
History - After parting from the Skidi in what is now Nebraska,
the Arikara gradually pushed north to the Missouri River and on
up that stream.
In 1770 when French traders opened relations with them they
were a little below Cheyenne River. Lesser and Weltfish (1932)
suggest that they may have been the Harahey or Arahey of whom
Coronado was told rather than the Pannee (q. v.) . Lewis and
Clark found them, reduced considerably in numbers, between Grand
and Cannonball Rivers. In 1823 they attacked the boats of an
American trader, killing 13 men and wounding others, and in
consequence of this trouble they abandoned their country and went
to live with the Skidi on Loup River. Two years later they
returned to the Missouri, and by 1851 they had pushed as far
north as Heart River. Meantime wars with the Dakota and the
smallpox had reduced them so much that they were glad to open
friendly relations with two other tribes, similarly reduced, the
Hidatsa and Mandan. In 1862 they moved to Fort Berthold. In 1880
the Fort Berthold Reservation was created for the three tribes,
and the Arikara have ever since lived upon it, though they are
now allotted land in severalty, and on the approval of the
allotments, July 10, 1900, they became citizens of the United
States.
Population - Mooney (1928) estimates that in 1780 there were
about 3,000 Arikara. In 1804 Lewis and Clark gave 2,600. In 1871
they numbered 1,660; in 1888 only 500; and in 1904, 380. The
census of 1910 returned 444 of whom 425 were in North Dakota. In
1923 the United States Indian Office gave 426. The census of 1930
returned 420, and the United States Indian Office in 1937, 616.
Connection in which they have become noted - The Ariknra are
noted merely as the most northerly of the Caddoan tribes and from
their probable influence in introducing a knowledge of
agriculture to the people of the upper Missouri. Arickaree in
Washington County Colo., perpetuates the name.
Assiniboin. In early days the Assiniboin were constantly coming
across from Canada to fight and trade with the tribes of the
upper Missouri, but they did not settle within the limits of
North Dakota for any considerable period. (See Montana, and also
Dakota under South Dakota.)
Cheyenne. When they left Minnesota the Cheyenne settled for a
while on the Sheyenne fork of Red River after which they moved
beyond the limits of the State of North Dakota. (See South
Dakota.)
Chippewa. After they had obtained guns the Chippewa pushed
westward as far as the Turtle Mountains which gave their name to
a Chippewa band. There were 2,966 Chippewa in North Dakota
in 1910. (See Minnesota.)
Dakota. While working their way west from Minnesota, bands of
Dakota occupied at various times parts of the eastern, southern,
and southwestern margins of North Dakota and a part of the
Standing Rock Agency is within the limits of the State. In 1910
1,190 Dakota were making their homes on its soil. (See South
Dakota.)
Hidatsa. Derived from the name of a former village and said, on
somewhat doubtful authority, to signify "willows." Also called:
A-gutch-a-ninne-wug, Chippewa name, meaning "the settled
people."
A-me-she', Crow name, meaning "people who live in earth
houses."
Gi-aucth-in-in-e-wug, Chippewa name, meaning "men of the
olden time."
Gros Ventres of the Missouri, traders' name, probably
derived from the sign for them in the sign language.
Hewaktokto, Dakota name.
Minitari, meaning "they crossed the water," said to have
been given to them by the Mandan, from the tradition of their
first encounter with the tribe on the Missouri.
Wa-nuk'-e-ye'-na, Arapaho name, meaning "lodges planted
together."
Wetitsaan, Arikara name.
Connections - The Hidatsa belonged to the Siouan linguistic
stock, their closest relations within it being the Crow.
Location - They lived at various points on the Missouri between
the Heart and Little Missouri Rivers. (See also Montana and
Canada.)
Villages
Lewis and Clark (1804-5) give the following three names:
Amahami or Mahaha, on the south bank of Knife River, formerly
an independent but closely related tribe.
Amatiha, on the south bank of Knife River.
Hidatsa, on the north bank of Knife River.
The band names given by Morgan are rather those of social
divisions.
History - According to tradition, the Hidatsa formerly lived by a
lake northeast of their later country, one sometimes identified
with Devil's Lake. They moved from there to the mouth of Heart
River, where they met and allied themselves with the Mandan, and
from them they learned agriculture. As we have seen, Lewis and
Clark found them on Knife River. In 1837 a terrible smallpox
epidemic wasted them so completely that the survivors
consolidated into one village which was moved in 1845 to the
neighborhood of Fort Berthold, where the tribe has ever since
continued to reside. They have now been allotted lands in
severalty and are citizens of the United States.
Population - Mooney (1928) estimates the Hidatsa and Amahami
together as numbering 2,100 in 1780. Lewis and Clark give 600
warriors, or about 2,100 people. In 1905 they totaled 471, and
the census of 1910 gives 547, a figure repeated hy the United
States Indian Office in 1923. In 1930, 528. were returned and in
1937, 731.
Connection in which they have become noted - The Hidatsa appear
most prominently, along with the Mandan, in connection with the
ascent of the Missouri by Lewis and Clark and later expeditions
into the same region. The name of Minatare, Scotts Bluff County,
Nebr., probably refers to this tribe.
Mandan. Probably a corruption of the Dakota word applied to
them, Mawatani. Also called:
A-rach-bo-cu, Hidatsa name (Long, 1791).
As-a-ka-shi, Us-suc-car-shay. Crow name.
How-mox-tox-sow-es, Hidatsa name (?).
Kanit', Arikara name
Kwowahtewug, Ottawa name
Metutahanke, own name since 1837, after their old village.
Mo-no'-ni-o, Cheyenne name.
Numakaki, own name prior to 1837, meaning "men," "people."
U-ka'-she, Crow name, meaning "earth houses."
Connections - The Mandan belonged to the Siouan linguistic stock.
Their connections are with the Tutelo and Winnebago rather than
the nearer Siouan tribes.
Location - When known to the Whites, the Mandan were on the
same part of the Missouri River as the Hidatsa, between Heart and
Little Missouri Rivers. (See also South Dakota.)
Subdivisions and Villages
The division names given by Morgan (1851) appear to have been
those of their former villages and are as follows: Horatamumake,
Mntonumake, Seepoosha, Tunatsuka, Kitanemake, Estapa, and
Neteahke. In 1804 Lewis and Clark found two villages in
existence, Metutshanke and Ruptari, about 4 miles below the mouth
of Knife River. They were divided socially into two moieties
named like those of the Hidatsa, the Four-Clan Moiety and Three-
Clan Moiety, and many of the clans constituting these bear
village names. One of Dr. Lowie's (1917) informants gave the
Prairie-chicken people, Young white-headed Eagle, People all in a
bunch, and Crow people, as clans of the first Moiety; and the
Maxi'`kina, Tami'sik, and Nu'pta as clans of the second. Another
informant gave the following clans altogether: Si'pucka,
Xtata'nu'make, Village above, Maxi'`kina, Tami'sik, Seven-
different-kinds, Hilltop village, Scattered village, White-
bellied mouse people, and Nuptare. Curtis (1907-9) and Maximilian
(1843) give a Badger clan; Curtis, Red Butte and Charcoal clans;
Maximilian, Bear and Cactus villages, perhaps intended for clans
d Morgan, Wolf, Good Knife, Eagle, and Flathead clans. Some of
Lowie's informants substituted other names for Nu'pta, which
latter is also the name of a village.
History - When first visited by the Whites, the Mandan had
distinct traditions of an eastern origin, and they may have come
from the neighborhood of the Winnebago or from the Ohio country.
Tradition also affirms that they first reached the Missouri at
the mouth of White River, South Dakota, whence they moved to
Moreau River and thence to Heart River, where the Whites found
them. The first recorded visit to them was by Varendrye in 1738.
The nine villages which they had in 1750 were merged into two by
1776 which were about 4 miles below the mouth of Knife River when
Lewis and Clark visited them in 1804. In 1837 they were almost
destroyed by smallpox, only 31 souls being left out of 1,600,
according to one account. In 1845 some Mandan accompanied the
Hidatsa to Fort Berthold, others followed at intervals, and the
tribe has continued to reside there down to the present time,
though lands are now allotted to them in severalty and they are
citizens of the United States.
Population - Mooney's (1928) estimate of Mandan population for
1780 is 3,600. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimated there were
1,250, and in 1837, just before the great smallpox epidemic,
there were supposed to be 1,600. In 1850 the total number was
said to be 150, but in 1852 it had apparently increased to 385.
In 1871 there were 450; in 1877, 420; in 1885, 410; and 1905,
249; while the census of 1910 returned 209, and the United States
Indian Office Report of 1923, 273. The census of 1930 gives 271,
and the Indian Office Report for 1937, 345.
Connection in which they have become noted - The Mandan attained
wide notoriety among the Whites (1) from their intimate dealings
with the early White explorers and traders in the upper Missouri
region; (2) from the fact that their customs and ceremonies were
made particular matters of record by Maximilian (1843), Catlin
(1844), and other White visitors; (3) from the reputation these
Indians acquired of an unusually light skin color and theories of
Welsh or, at least European, origin based upon these characters;
and (4) from the tragic decimation of the tribe by smallpox as
above mentioned. The name has been adopted as that of a city in
North Dakota, the capital of Morton County.
Nebraska
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Arapaho. The Arapaho ranged for a considerable period over the
western part of this State. (See Wyoming.)
Arikara. This tribe lived in the territory now included in
Nebraska with the Skidi Pawnee at some prehistoric period, and
after 1823 they returned to the same tribe for 2 years. (See
North Dakota.)
Cheyenne. Like the Arapaho, the Cheyenne ranged to some extent
over the western territories of the State. (See South Dakota.)
Comanche. At an early day the Comanche must have lived in or
near the western part of Nebraska, before moving south. (See
Texas.)
Dakota. The Dakota had few settlements of any permanency in the
territory of Nebraska but they were constantly riding into and
across it from the north. (See South Dakota.)
Foxes. The Foxes were parties to a land cession made in 1830.
(See Wisconsin.)
Iowa. When the Omaha lived about the Pipestone Quarry in
Minnesota, they were accompanied by the Iowa, who afterward went
with them to South Dakota and thence to Nebraska. They, however,
continued southeast into the territory of the present State of
Iowa (q. v.).
Kansas. They were parties to a cession of Nebraska land made in
1825. (See Kansas.)
Kiowa. The Kiowa were at one time on the western margin of
Nebraska and later followed the Comanche south. (See Oklahoma.)
Missouri. After they had been driven from Missouri by the Sauk
and Fox, the remnant of this tribe lived for a while in villages
south of Platte River. (See Missouri.)
Omaha. Meaning "those going against the wind or current";
sometimes shortened to Maha. Also called:
Ho'-man-han, Winnebago name.
Hu-umui, Cheyenne name.
Oni'hao, Cheyenne name, meaning "drum beaters" (?).
Puk-tis, Pawnee name.
U'-aha, Pawnee name.
Connections - The Omaha belonged to that section of the Siouan
linguistic stock which included also the Ponca, Kansa, Osage, and
Quapaw, and which was called by J. 0. Dorsey (1897) Dhegiha.
Location - Their principal home in historic times was in
northeastern Nebraska, on the Missouri River. (See also Iowa,
Minnesota, Missouri, and South Dakota.)
History - According to strong and circumstantial traditions, the
Omaha and others belonging to the same group formerly lived on
the Ohio and Wabash Rivers. It is usually said that the Quapaw
separated from the general body first, going down the
Mississippi, but it is more likely that they were left behind by
the others and later moved out upon the great river. The Osage
remained on Osage River, and the Kansa continued on up the
Missouri, but the Omaha, still including the Ponca, passed north
inland as far as the Pipestone Quarry in Minnesota, and were
afterward forced west by the Dakota, into what is now the State
of South Dakota. There the Ponca separated from them and the
Omaha settled on Bow Creek, in the present Nebraska. They
continued from that time forward in the same general region, the
west side of the Missouri River between the Platte and the
Niobrara, but in 1855 made their last movement of consequence to
the present Dakota County. In 1854 they sold all of their lands
except a portion kept for a reserve, and they gave up the
northern part of this in 1865 to the Winnebago. (See Wisconsin.)
In 1882, through the efforts of Miss Alice C. Fletcher, they were
granted lands in severalty with prospects of citizenship, and
Miss Fletcher was given charge of the ensuing allotment.
Citizenship has now been granted them.
Population - Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about
2,800 Omaha in 1780. In 1802 they were reduced by smallpox to
about 300. In 1804 the estimated number was 600; in 1829, 1,900;
in 1843, 1,600. Schoolcraft (1851-57) gives 1,349 in 1861;
Burrows, 1,200 in 1857; and the same number appears in the census
returns for 1880. In 1906 the United States Indian Office
returned 1,228, and the census of 1910 gave 1,105. The Report of
the United States Indian Office for 1923 showed an increase to
1,440. The census of 1930 gave 1,103, principally in Nebraska.
The United States Indian Office reported 1,684 in 1932.
Connection in which they have become noted - The Omaha will be
remembered particularly from the fact that its name has been
adopted by the City of Omaha, Nebr. It has also been given to
small places in Boone County, Ark.; Stewart County, Ga.; Gallatin
County, Ill.; Morris County, Tex.; Knott County, Ky.; and
Dickenson County, Va.
It will be remembered furthermore as the scene of the
humanitarian labors of Miss Alice C. Fletcher and the
ethnological studies of Miss Fletcher and Dr. Francis La Flesche.
Oto. From Wat'ota, meaning "lechers." It often appears in a
lengthened form such as Hoctatas or Octoctatas. Also called:
Che-wae-rae, own name.
Matokatagi, Shawnee name.
Motutatak, Fox name.
Wacutada, Omaha nnd Ponca name.
Wadotata, Kansa name.
Watohtata, Dakota name.
Watutata, Osage name.
Connections - The Oto formed, with the Iowa and Missouri, the
Chiwere group of the Siouan linguistic family and were closely
connected with the Winnebago.
Location - The Oto moved many times, but their usual location in
the historic period was on the lower course of the Platte or the
neighboring banks of the Missouri. (See also Iowa, Kansas,
Minnesota, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)
History - From the maps of the Marquette expedition it would seem
that at the time when they were drawn, 1673, the Oto were some
distance up Des Moines River. Their name was often coupled with
that of the related Iowa who lived north of them, but they always
seem to have occupied a distinct area. Shortly after this time
they moved over to the Missouri and by 1804 had established their
town on the south side of the Platte River not far from its
mouth. According to native traditions, this tribe, the Iowa, and
the Missouri were anciently one people with the Winnebago, but
moved southwest from them, and then separated from the Iowa at
the mouth of Iowa River and from the Missouri at the mouth of
Grand River. Their language proves that they were closely related
to these tribes whether or not the separations occurred in the
manner and at the places indicated. Their split with the Missouri
is said to have been brought about by a quarrel between two
chiefs arising from the seduction of the daughter of one by the
son of the other, and from this circumstance the Oto are
supposed to have derived their name. In 1700 they were, according
to Le Sueur, on Blue Earth River near the Iowa and it is probable
that they moved into the neighborhood of the Iowa or Missouri at
several different times, but their usual position was clearly
intermediate along a north-south line. In 1880 two Oto chiefs
came to visit La Salle in Illinois and reported that they had
traveled far enough west to fight with people using horses, who
were evidently the Spaniards, a fact which proves their early
westward range.
By treaties signed July 15, 1830, and October 15, 1836, they
and the Missouri ceded all claims to land in Missouri and Iowa,
and by another signed September 21, 1833, the two ceded all
claims to land south of the Little Nemaha River. By a treaty
signed March 15, 1854, they gave up all their lands except a
strip 10 miles wide and 25 miles long on the waters of Big Blue
River, but when it was found that there was no timber on this
tract it was exchanged on December 9 for another tract taken from
the Kansas Indians. In a treaty sighed August 15, 1876, and
amended March 3, 1879, they agreed to sell 120,000 acres off the
western end of their reserve. And finally, a treaty signed on
March 3, 1881, provided, the consult of the tribe being obtained,
for the sale of all of the remainder of their land in Kansas and
Nebraska, and the selection of a new reservation. Consent to the
treaty was recorded May 4 following, and the tribe removed the
following year to the new reservation which was in the present
Oklahoma southwest of Arkansas River on Red Rock and Black Bear
Creeks, west of the present Pawnee. The first removal to Oklahoma
is said to have been due to a fission in the tribe resulting in
the formation of two bands, a conservative band called Coyotes
and the Quakers, who were progressives. The Coyotes moved in 1880
and the Quakers joined them 2 years later.
Population - Mooney (1928) estimated that in 1780 the Oto
numbered about 900. In 1805 Lewis and Clark estimated 500 then
living, but Catlin in 1833 raised this to 1,300, a figure which
includes the Missouri Burrows in 1849 gives 900, and the United
States Indian Office in 1843, 931. This and all later
enumerations include both the Oto and the Missouri. In 1862 they
numbered 708; in 1867, 511; in 1877, 457; in 1886, 334; in 1906,
390; and by the census of 1910, 332. The census of 1930, however,
showed a marked increase to a total of 627, all but 13 of whom
were in Oklahoma, 376 in Nobls County, 170 in Pawnee, 34 in Kay,
and 17 in Osage. There were 7 in California, 1 in Kansas, and 1
in Nebraska. In 1937, 756 were reported in Oklahoma.
Connection in which they have become noted - The name Oto has
been applied to some small settlements in Woodbury County, Iowa,
and in Missouri, and in the form Otoe to a county and post
village in Nebraska.
Pawnee. The name is derived by some from the native word pariki,
"a horn," term said to be used to designate their peculiar manner
of dressing the scalp lock; but Lessor and Weltfish (1932)
consider it more likely that it is from parisu, "hunter," as
claimed by themselves. They were also called Padani and Panana by
various tribes. Also known is:
Ahthinin, Arapaho name, meaning "wolf people."
Awahi, Caddo and Wichita name.
Awahu, Arikara name.
Awo, Tonkawa name, originally used by the Wichita.
Chahiksichahiks, meaning "men of men," applied to themselves
but also to all other tribes whom they considered civilized.
Darazhazh, Kiowa Apache name.
Harahey, Coronndo documents (somewhat uncertain).
Ho-ni'-i-tani-o, Cheyenne name, meaning "little wolf
people."
Kuitare-i, Comanche name, meaning "wolf people."
Paoneneheo, early Cheyenne name, meaning "the ones with
projecting front teeth."
Payin, Kansa form of the name.
Pi-ta'-da, name given to southern tribes (Grinnell, 1923).
Tie-sa do hpa ka, Hidatsa name meaning "wolf people."
Wohesh, Wichita name.
Xaratenumanke, Mandan name.
Connections - The Pawnee were one of the principal tribes of the
Caddoan linguistic stock. The Arikara (q.v.) were an offshoot,
and the Wichita were more closely related to them than were the
Caddo.
Location - On the middle course of Platte River and the
Republican fork of Kansas River. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and
Wyoming.)
Subdivisions
The Pawnee consisted in reality of four tribes, or four known in
historic times, viz: The Chaui or Grand Pawnee, the Kitkehahki or
Republican Pannee, the Pitahauerat or Tapage Pawnee, and the
Skidi or Skiri Pawnee, the first three speaking the same dialect
and being otherwise more closely connected with one another than
with the last. The Kitkehahki embraced two divisions, the
Kitkehahki proper and the Little Kitkehuhki. Murie gives two
others, the Black Heads and Karikisu, but Lesser nnd Weltfish
(1932) state that the first was a society and the second the name
of the women's dance or ceremony before corn planting. The
Pitahauerat consisted of the Pitahauerat proper and the
Kawnrakis, sometimes said to he villages.
History - Some of the Pawnee trace their origin to the southwest,
some to the east, and some claim always to have lived in the
country with which later history associates them. The first White
men to meet any members of these tribes were the Spaniards under
Coronado in 1541. French explorers heard of them again early in
the eighteenth century and French traders were established among
them before the middle of it. The Spaniards of New Mexico became
acquainted with them at about the same time on account of the
raids which they conducted in search of horses. They lay somewhat
out of the trail of the first explorers from the east, and in
consequence suffered less diminution in numbers through White
influences than did many of their neighbors, but they were
considerably reduced through wars with the surrounding tribes,
particularly with the Dakota. Although some of the early traders
and trappers were treated harshly by them, their relations with
the United States Government were friendly from the first, and
they uniformly furnished scouts for the frontier armies. By
treaties negotiated in 1833, 1848, and 1857, they ceded all of
their lands in Nebraska except one reservation and in 1876 this
tract was also surrendered and the entire tribe given new lands
in Oklahoma, where they still live. The land has been allotted to
them in severalty and they are now citizens of the United States.
Population - Mooney (1928) estimates 10,000 Pawnee in 1780. In
1702 Iberville estimated 2,000 families. In 1838 they numbered
about 10,000 according to an estimate of Dunbar and Allis
(1880-82), and one authority places the figure as high as 12,500.
In 1849, after the cholera epidemic, they were reported at 4,500;
in 1856, 4,686 were returned, but in 1861, only 3,416. In 1879,
after suffering severely in consequence of the removal to Indian
Territory, they had dropped to 1,440, and by 1906 they had fallen
to 649. The census of 1910 returned 633, but according to the
Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923, they had then
increased to 773. The census of 1930 gave 730. In 1937, 959 were
reported.
Connection in which they have become noted - The Pawnee tribe is
distinguished (1) for its peculiar language and culture; (2)
because of its numbers and warlike prowess, its constant
hostility to the Dakota, and consistent assistance to the
American forces operating upon the Plains; and (3) as having
given its name to a city in Oklahoma; to counties in Oklahoma,
Kansas, and Nebraska; to streams in Colorado and Kansas; and to
places in Morgan County, Colo.; Sangamon County, Ill.; Montgomery
County, Ind.; Pawnee City in Pawnee County, Nebr.; Pawnee Rock in
Barton County, Kans.; Pawnee Station in Bourbon County, Kans.;
and a creek and buttes in northeastern Colorado.
Ponca. Own name, meaning unknown. Also called.
Dihit, Li-hit' or Rihit, Pawnee name
Kan'kan, Winnebago name.
Tchiaxsokush, Caddo name.
Connections - The Ponca spoke practically the same language as
the Omaha and formed with them, the Osage, Kansa, and Quapaw,
the Dhegiha group of the Siouan linguistic family.
Location - On the right bank of the Missouri at the mouth of the
Niobrara. (See also Iowa, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and South Dakota.)
History - The early life of the Ponca seems to have run parallel
with that of the Omaha (q.v.). They are said to have separated
from the latter at the mouth of White River, S. Dak., and to have
moved west into the Black Hills but to have rejoined the Omaha a
little later. These two tribes and the Iowa then descended the
Missouri together as far as the mouth of the Niobrara, where the
Ponca remained while the Omaha established themselves below on
Bow Creek. They remained in approximately the same situation
until 1877 when the larger part of them were forcibly removed to
Indian Territory. This action was the occasion for a special
investigation, as a result of which about three-quarters
continued in the Territory while the remainder preferred to
remain in their old country. Their lands have now been allotted
to them in severalty.
Population - Mooney (1928) gives 800, as the probable size of the
Ponca tribe in 1780. In 1804 Lewis and Clark estimate only 200
but they had been greatly reduced just before by smallpox. In
1829 they had increased to 600 and in 1842 to about 800. In 1871
they numbered 747. In 1906 the Ponca in Oklahoma numbered 570 and
those in Nebraska 263; total, 833. The census of 1910 gave 875 in
all, including 619 in Oklahoma and 193 in Kansas. The Report of
the United States Indian Office for 1923 was 1,381, evidently
including other tribes. The census of 1930 returned 939. In 1937
the United States Indian Office gave 825 in Oklahoma and 397 in
Nebraska.
Connection in which they have become noted - The name Ponca is
preserved by a river in South Dakota, Ponca City in Kay County,
Okla., and places in Newton County, Ark., and Dixon County, Nebr.
Sauk. Like the Foxes, they were parties to the land cession of
1830 involving territories in this State. (See Wisconsin.)
Winnebago. Part of the Winnebago settled close to the Omaha
after they had been driven from Minnesota following the Dakota
outbreak of 1862. A reservation was later assigned them there
and in course of time they were allotted land in severalty upon
it. (See Wisconsin.)
Nevada
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Koso. This is properly a California tribe, though it sometimes
ranged into Nevada. (See California.)
Paiute, Northern. The significance of the word "Paiute" is
uncertain, though it has been interpreted to mean "water Ute" or
"true Ute." Also called:
Monachi, Yokuts name.
Monozi, Maidu name.
Mono-Paviotso, name adopted in the Handbook of American
Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910), from an abbreviated form of the
above and Paviotso.
Nutaa, Chukohansi Yokuts name, signifying that they were
east or upstream.
Paviotso, a native term applied by Powell (1891) to a part
of the Nevada Indians of this group.
Snake, name commonly given to the Northern Paiute of Oregon.
Connections.- With the Bannock, the Northern Paiute constituted
one dialectic group of the Shoshonean Branch of the Uto Aztecan
stock.
Location.- The Northern Paiute were not properly a tribe, the name
being used for a dialectic division as indicated above. They
covered western Nevada southeastern Oregon, and a strip of
California east of the Sierra Nevada as far south as Owens Lake
except for territory occupied by the Washo. According to the
students of the area, they were pushed out of Powder River Valley
and the upper course of John Day River in the nineteenth century
by Shahaptian tribes and the Cayuse. (See also Idaho.)
Subdivisions and Villages
There were no true tribes or bands except in the extreme western
and northeastern parts of the area covered, but topography
enforced concentration into certain valleys. Aside from the
detached Bannock, the Northern Paiute were divided by the Sierra
Nevada Mountains into a widely spread eastern division and a
small division confined to California, the Eastern and Western
Mono of Kroeber. Kroeber (1925) distinguishes six divisions of
the latter as follows:
Balwisha, on the Kaweah River, especially on its south side.
Holkomn, on a series of confluent streams- of which Big Burr and
Sycamore Creeks are the most important- entering Kings River
above Mill Creek.
Northfork Mono, for whom no native name has survived, on the
North Fork of San Joaquin River.
Posgisa or Poshgisha, of the San Joaquin, on Big Sandy Creck, and
toward, if not on, the heads of Little and Big Dry Creeks.
Waksachi, on Limekiln and Eshom Creeks and the North Fork of
Kaweah River.
Wobonuch, at the head of Mill Creek, a southern affluent of Kings
River, and in the pine ridges to the north.
Away from Owens Valley and the immediate neighborhood the Paiute
have been divided into a large number of bands with names which
usually signify that they were "eaters" of some particular kind
of food. Although the entire area has been filled in with such
names, they have been given largely by Indians from areas outside
those of tke supposed bands; different names are given by
different informants, the same name occurs in a number of places,
at times widely separated, and there is lack of agreement among
informants, including Steward (1933), Kelly (1937), Park (1938),
and Blyth (1938), as to the numbers, names, and locations of the
groups under consideration. Instead of attempting any sort of
classification, therefore, I will simply insert a miscellaneous
list of villages and local settlements though these were almost
as fluctuating and impermanent as the larger groups. In most
cases, however, it may be assumed that the location was
determined by economic factors and mention of such a site has,
therefore, some permanent value however often the name may have
changed or the composition of the village fluctuated.
Gifford (1932) gives the following hamlets belonging to
Kroeber's Northfork Mono besides 83 fishing places and campsites,
the exact locations of which are entered in his report and
accompanying map:
Apasoraropa. Homohomineu.
Apayiwe. Howaka.
Asiahanyu. Kodiva.
Bakononohoi. Konahinau.
Dipichugu. Kotuunu.
Dipichyu. Kunugipi.
Ebehime. Monolu.
Homenadobema. Moyopaso.
Muchupiwe. Sihuguwe.
Musawati. Sikinobi.
Nakamayuwe. Sipineu.
Napasiat. Siugatu.
Noboihawe. Soyakanim.
Nosidop. Sukuunu.
Ohinobi. Supanaminau.
O'oneu. Takapiwe.
Oyonagatu. Takatiu.
Pahabitima. Tasineu.
Pakasanina. Tiwokiiwe.
Papavagohira. Topochinatu.
Pasawspu. Tobipakwina.
Pasiaputka. Tulcweninewe.
Pausoleu. Tumuyuyu.
Payauta. Tupipasaguwe.
Pekeneu. Waapuwee.
Pimishineu. Wadakhanau.
Poniaminau. Wegigoyo.
Poniwinyu. Wiakwu.
Ponowee. Wokoiinaha.
Saganiu. Wokosolna.
Saiipu. Yatsayau.
Saksakadiu. Yauwatinyu.
Sanita. Yauyau.
Sigineu.
Steward enumerates the following "districts" of Owens Valley and
neighboring valleys, each with communistic hunting and seed
rights, political unity, and a number of villages:
Kwina patu, Round Valley.
Panatu, the Black Rock territory, south to Taboose Creek.
Pitana patu, extending from the volcanic tableland and Norton
Creek in the Sierra to a line running out into Onrens Valley from
Waucodayavi, the largest creek south of Rawson Creek.
Tovowahamatu, centering at Big Pine, south to Big Pine Creek in
the mountains, but with fishing and seed rights along Owens River
nearly to Fish Springs.
Tunuhu witu, of uncertain limits.
Utu'utu witu, from the warm springs, now Keough's, south to
Shannon Creek.
The people of Deep Springs Valley called their valley Patosabaya
and themselves Patosabaya nunemua; the Fish Lake Valley people to
the north of these did not constitute a unified band but were
distributed into the following villages:
Ozanwin, on the east or south slope of the Sylvania Mountains and
near Tu'nava.
Pau'uva, in the vicinity of McNett ranch.
Sohoduhatu, at the present Oasis ranch.
Suhuyoi, at the Patterson ranch.
Tuna'va, the present Geroux ranch, marked McFee on the United
States Geological Survey.
Tu'nava, at Pigeon Spring at the east end of Fish Lake Valley.
Watuhad, Moline raneh on Moline Creek.
Yogamatu, several miles from the mountains at the present
Chiatovich ranch.
Steward (1933) gives the following village names in and near
Owens Valley:
An unnamed site west of Deep Springs Lake.
Ahagwa, on Division Creek.
Antelope Springs, native nanne not recorded.
Hudu matu, on Cottonwood Creek.
Hunadudugo, camp near Wyman Creek.
Ka'nasi, camp at Dead Horse Meadow on Wyman Creek.
Mogahu' pina, scattered along Hogback, Lone Pine, Tuttle, and
Diez Creeks.
Mogohopinan watu, on Richter Creek.
Muhu witu, on Tinnemaha Creek.
Nataka' matu, at Independence.
Nuvahu' matu, near Thibaut Creek.
Oza'n witu, southeast of Deep Springs Lake.
Padohahu matu, on Goodale Creek.
Pahago watu, on Tuttle Creek.
Pakwazi' natu, at Olancha.
Pa'natu, on Owens River, near mouth of Birch Creek.
Pau'wahapu, at Hines Spring.
Pawona witu, on Bishop Creek below Bishop.
Pa'yapo'o'ha, south of Bishop.
Pazi'wapi'nwuna, at Independence.
Posi'da witu, on Baker Creek.
Suhubadopa, at Fish Springs Creek, at least in prehistoric times.
Suhu'budu mutu, on Carroll Creek.
Suhuvakwazi natu, on Wyman Creek.
Tanova witu, south of Independence.
Ti'numaha witu, on Tinnemaha Creek.
To'owiawatu, at Symmes Creek.
Totsitupi, on Thibaut Creek.
To'vowaha'matu, at Big Pine on Big Pine Creek.
Tsagapu witu, at Shepherd Creek.
Tsaki'shaduka, near Old Fort Independence.
Tsaksha witu, at Fort Independence.
Tsa'wawua'a, on Bishop Creek.
Tsigoki, beyond Owens ranch, east of Bishop.
Tuhunitogo, near upper course of Birch Creek.
Tuinu'hu, on Sawmill Creek.
Tunwa'pu, at the mouth of Taboose Creek.
Tupico, on Birch Creek, west of Hunadudugo.
Tupuzi witu, at George's Creek.
Waushova witu, on Lone Pine Creek.
Steward gives the following village; in Figh Lake Valley:
Oza'nwin, on the east or south slope of the Sylvania Mountains
and near Tu'nava.
Pau'uva, in the vicinity of McNett ranch.
Sohoduhatu, at the present Oasis ranch.
Suhuyoi, at the Patterson ranch.
Tuna' va, at the present Geroux ranch.
Tu' nava, at Pigeon Springs at east end of Fish Lake Valley.
Watuhad, at Moline ranch.
Yogamatu, several miles from the mountains at the present
Chiatovich ranch.
The following are miscellaneous local groups of Northern Baiute,
the names drawn from various sources:
Agaivauma, at Summit Lake, western Nevada.
Duhutcyatikadu, on Silver and Summer Lakes, Oreg.
Genega's Band, at the mouth of Truckee River
Gidutikadu, in Surprise, Calif.; Coleman; Warner, Oreg.; and
probably also Long Valleys, in California, Nevada, and Oregon.
Goyatikendu, at Yainax and Beatty, Oreg., brought from Silver
Lake.
Hadsapoke's Band, at Gold Canyon, Carson River.
Hoonebooey, east of the Cascades and south of the Blue Mountains
of Oregon.
Itsaatiaga, about Unionville, Nev.
Knivaningavidukw, in Surprise Valley, northeastern California.
Koeats, in north central Nevada.
Kosipatuwiwagaiyu, about Carson Sink.
Koyuhow, about McDermitt, Nev.
Kuhpattikutteh, on Quinn River, Nev.
Kuyuidika, near the site of Wadsworth on Truckee River.
Kuyuitikadu, at Pyramid Lake, Nixon, Nev.
Kwinaduvaa, at McDermitt, Nev.
Laidukatuwiwait, about the sink of the Humboldt.
Lohim, an 1solated Shoshonean band, probably of this connection,
on Willow Creek, a southern affluent of the Columbia, Oreg.
Loko, on or near Carson River, Nev.
Nogaie (with 4 subbands), in the vicinity of Robinson District,
Spring Valley, Duckwater, and White River Valley.
Odukeo's Band, around Carson and Walker Lakes.
Oualuck's Band, in Eureka Valley, Oreg.
Pamitoy, in Mason Valley.
Paxai-dika, in Bridgeport Valley, Calif.
Petodseka, about Carson and Walker Lakes.
Piattuiabbe (with 5 bands), near Belmont, Nev.
Pitanakwat or Petenegowat, in Owens Valley, but formerly in
Esmeralda County, Nev.
Poatsituhtikuteh, on the north fork of Walker River.
San Joaquin's Band, at the forks in Carson Valley.
Sawagativa, about Winnemucca.
Shobarboobeer, probably of this connection, in the interior of
Oregon.
Shuzavi-dika, in Mono Valley, Calif.
Togwingani, about Malbeur Lake, Oreg.
Tohaktivi, about the White Mountains, near the head of Owens
River, Calif.
Toitikadu, at Fallon and Yerington, Nev.
Toiwait, about the lower Sink of the Carson.
Tonawitsowa (with 6 bands), in the vicinity of Battle Mountain
and Unionville.
Tonoyiet's Band, below Big Meadows, Truckee River.
Torepe's Band, near the lower crossing of Truckee River.
Tosarke's Band, near Carson and Walker Lakes.
Tsapakah, in Smith Valley.
Tubianwapu, about Virginia City.
Tubuwitikadu, east of Steens Mountain, Oreg.
Tupustikutteh, on Carson River.
Tuziyammos, about Warner Lake, Oreg.
Wahi's Band, at the big bend of Carson River.
Wadatikadu, at Burns, Malheur District, Oregon, and Susanville,
Calif.
Wahtatkin, east of the Cascade Mountains and south of the Blue
Mountains Oreg.
Walpapi, on the shores of Goose, Silver, Warner, and Harney
Lakes, Oregon.
Warartika, about Honey Lake, northeastern California.
Watsequeorda's Band, on Pyramid Lake.
Winemucca's Band, said to have had a specific location on Smoke
Creek near Honey Lake, northeastern California, but to have been
extended to other northern Paiute living west of the Hot Springs
Mountains in Nevada, who do not seem to have been united into one
body until brought together to defend themselves against the
Whites.
Wobonuch, at the head of Mill Creek, California, and in the pine
ridges to the north.
Yahuskin, about the shores of Goose, Silver, and Harney Lakes,
Oreg.
Yammostuwiwagaiya, in Paradise Valley, Nev.
History.- Although the territory of the Northern Paiute has been
occupied for a long period by human beings and has been modified
from time to time along its margins by neighboring cultures,
there seem to have been few fundamental changes in the culture of
the region taken as a whole, the economic life having been based
on hunting and gathering. Contacts with Europeans began at a
comparatively late period, probably with the entrance of trappers
about 1825. Jedediah Smith made journeys across Nevada in 1825
and Old Greenwood may have visited it still earlier. Peter Skene
Ogden visited the Paiute of eastern Oregon between 1926 and 1828
and probably reached Humboldt River in Nevada. These men were
followed by Walker (1833), Russell (1834-43), and many others.
During this period relations with the Indians seem to have been
uniformly friendly, but clashes became more numerous with the
great stream of immigration which began about 1840 and swelled to
tidal proportions with the discovery of gold in California. The
Paiute in the remote valleys, however, remained for a long time
little affected. Descriptions of Indian life in the numerous
reports of travelers are disappointing. A great crisis in the
affairs of the Indians was brought about by the discovery of thc
Comstock lode at Virginia City, Nev., since in the next 10 years
prospectors penet rated every part of the territory, says
Steward, "and boom towns sprang up in the midst of sheer desert."
A greater menace to the lives of the Indians was the introduction
of livestock and consequent destruction of native food plants.
Pinyon trees were also cut down for fuel. By this time the
natives had both guns and horses and were in consequence much
more capable of inflicting damage in the clashes which began
about 1860 and in consequence of which several military posts
were established. With the completion of the first
transcontinental railroad in 1869, the native period came
practically to an end. On October 1, 1863, the United States
Government extended its authority without formal purchase over
the territory of the "Western Shoshoni" and included within it
the northern part of the lands occupied by the Northern Paiute
under discussion. The Government assumed "the right of
satisfying their claim by assigning them such reservations as
might seem essential for their occupancy, and supplying them in
such degree as might seem proper with necessaries of life"
(Royce, 1899). By virtue of the authority thus granted, a mill
and timber reserve was created on Truckee River by Executive
order, April 24, 1864, for the Pyramid Lake Indians. In December
1864 Eugene Monroe surveyed a reservation for the Paiute at
Walker River, and in January 1865 he surveyed another at Pyramid
Lake. The former was set aside by Executive order March 19, 1874,
and the latter 4 days later. "The remainder of the Pai Ute
country," says Royce, "[was] taken possession of by the United
States without formal relinquishment by the Indians." On the
other hand, the Indians by no means confined themselves to these
reservations.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimated that this division, i. e.,
the tribes embraced under the name of Northern Paiute, and the
true or Southern Paiute numbered 7,500 in 1845. The figures given
in the Report of the Indian Office for 1903 indicate a population
of about 5,400 for the group. The Census of 1910 reports 1,448
"Mono" and 3,038 Paviotso, a total of 4,486, but the United
States Indian Office Report of 1923 seems to give a total of more
than 13,000. This is evidently erroneous since the United States
Census of 1930 reported 4,420. The figures of the United States
Indian Office in 1937 seem to yield 4,108, after substracting
270, which plainly belonged to the Southern Paiute.
Paiute, Southern. Also called:
Auolasus, Pima name.
Chemegue Cuajala, by Garces in 1776, the first name on
account of their association with the Chemehucvi (see under
California; for Cuajala, see Kohoaldje below).
Da-da'-ze ni'-ka-cin'-ga. Kansa name, signifying
"grasshopper people."
Diggers, a popular name sometimes used for them.
Hogapa'goni, Shoshoni name, signifying "rush-arrow people."
Kohoaldje, originally Mohave name of Virgin River Paiute.
Numa, own name, signifying "people," "Indians."
Pa'gonotch, Southern Ute name.
Pah-ru-sa-pah, Chemehuevi name.
Snake Diggers, or Ute Diggers, by Simpson (1859).
Yabipai Cajuala, by Garces in 1776.
Connections.- The Southern Paiute belonged to the Ute-Chemehuevi
group of the Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan stock.
Location.- In western Utah, northwestern Arizona, southeastern
Nevada, and parts of southeastern California.
Subdivisions
Powell and Ingalls give the following "tribes" which, as Steward
(1933) suggests, were more likely villages or restricted local
groups:
Ho-kwaits, in the vicinity of Ivanspaw ("Ivanpah Mountain").
I'-chu-ar'-rum-pats, in Moapa Valley, "probably in Overton-St.
Thomas vicinity" (Kelly, 1932).
Kai'vav-wits, in the vicinity of Kannb ("Kaibab Plateau"- Kelly).
Kau-yai'-chits, at Ash Meadowa but actually in Shoshoni territory.
Kwai-an'-tikwok-ets, east of Colorado, which is perhaps what the
name means (Palmer, 1928).
Kwi-en'-go-mats, at Indian Springs.
Kwi-um'-pus, in the vicinity of Beaver.
Mo-a-pa-ri'-ats, in Moapa Valley (on Moapa Creek).
Mo-quats, in Kingston Mountains.
Mo-vwi'-ats, at Cottonwood Island.
Nau-wan'-a-tats, in Moapa Valley.
No-gwats, in the vicinity of Potosi ("in Spring Mountains"-
Kelly).
Nu-a'gun-tits, in Las Vegas Valley.
Pa-ga'-its, in the vicinity of Colville.
Pa-gu'its, at Pagu Lake.
Pa-ran-i-guts, in Pa-ran-i-gut Valley.
Pa-room'-pai-ats, in Moapa Valley "head of Moapa Creek, at Home
ranch."
Pa-room'-pats, at Pa-room Spring.
Pa-ru'-guns, in the vicinity of Parawau "Paragonah Lakes" (Kelly,
1932).
Pa-spi'-kai-vats, in the vicinity of Toquerville, "a district on
lower Ash Creek" (Kelly).
Pin'-ti-ats, in Moapa Valley.
Sau-won'-ti-atst in Moapa Valley.
Shi'-vwits, on Shi'-vwits Plateau.
Tim-pa-shau'-wa-got-sits, at Providence Mountains.
Tsou-wa'-ra-its, in Meadow Valley.
U'-ai-Nu-ints, in the vicinity of St. George.
U-in-ka'-rets, in Mountains ("Mount Trumbull"- Kelly).
Un-ka-ka'-ni-guts, in Long Valley.
Un-ka'-pa-Nu-kuints', in the vicinity of Cedar (perhaps "second
creek south of Kanarra . . . slightly southeast of New Harmony"-
Kelly).
U-tum'-pai-ats, in Moapa Valley ("site of Wiser Ranch, near
Glendale, Nevada"- Kelly).
Ya'-gats, at Armagoza ("spring just north of Tocopa, in Armagosa
Valley"- Kelly).
Kelly (1932) reduces the number of "tribes" or "bands" to 14,
some of which agree with those given by Powell, while others seem
to contain the remnants of a number of his "tribes." She also
gives two not appearing in his list, viz: the Kaiparowits and a
band at Gunlock.
History.- The Southern Paiute came in contact with the Spaniards
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries but were little
disturbed by them. The first attempt to describe them
systematically seems to have been made by Father Escalante, who
traversed their territory in 1776. After the annexation of
Californin and New Mexico to the United States, their country was
slowly but steadily encroached upon, and they were in part
removed to reservations though by far the greater number remained
scattered through the, country. There has been comparatively
little friction between these Indians and the Whites.
Population.- Mooney (1928) gives the population of the Southern
Paiute, and Northern Paiute together as 7,500 in 1845. In 1906
there were reported to be 129 Indians at Moapa Reservation, 267
at Duck Valley, and those not under an agent in Nevada were
estimated 6 years before to number 3,700, but this includes the
Northern Paiute; in Utah there were 76 Kaibab, 154 Shivwits, and
370 not under an agency; and in Arizona there were 350 Paiute,
under the Western Nevada School Superintendent, altogether
slightly more than 5,000. Even allowing for the Northem Paiute,
this figure must be too high or the enumerators of 1910 missed a
great many Indians, for the census of that date, reports only 780
Paiute altogether. The Indian Office Report for 1923 gives 226 in
Nevada and southwestorn Utah, but others in Utah aro onumerated
with the, Ute. The census of 1930 enumerates 294 exclusive of the
Chemehuevi. According to the Report of the United States Indian
Office for 1937, there seem to have been 439 in that year.
Connections in which they have become noted.- The name Paiute has
becomo identified with the name "Diggers." Both have been used in
a contemptuous sense. A county of south-central Utah is named
Paiute.
Panamint, see Paiute, Northern.
Pueblo. In historic times none of the Pueblo Indians havo
occupied any part of Nevada, but remains in the southern section
of the State testify to former occupancy by these Indians. (See
New Mexico and Arizona.)
Shoshoni. The Western Shoshoni occupied northeastern Nevada as
far as, and including, Reese River Valley. (See Idaho.)
Ute. The Ute claimed a small part of eastern Nevada. (See Utah.)
Washo. From the native term Washiu, signifying "person." Also
called:
Tsaisuma, name given them hy the northeastern Maidu.
Connections.- Until recently the Washo were rcgarded as
constituting a distinct linguistic stock, but it is now believed
that they were related to some of the tribes of California. J. P.
Harrington has announced a linguistic connection between them and
the Chumash, but other students place them in the Hokan
linguistic family.
Subdivisions
Lowie gives the following:
Ha'nale'lti, about Woodfords and in Antelope Valley.
Pa'walu, near Minden and Gardnerville.
We'lmelti, about Reno.
Location.- On Truckee River as far down as the Meadows, though
their right to the latter was disputed by the Northern Paiute
tribes; Carson River down to the first large canyon below Carson
City; the borders of Lake Tahoe; and Sierra and other valleys as
far as the first range south of Honey Lake, Calif.
History.- There is some evidence that the Washo were once
established in valleys farther east than the location above given
and were driven thence by Northern P&iute tribes. In 1860-62,
according to Mooney (1928), the Northern Paiute conquered them in
a contest over the site of Carson and forbade them thenceforth to
own horses. They had little contact with Whites until very recent
years. In later times they lived between Reno and a point a short
distance south of Carson City, where they adopted a parasitic
mode of life, depending almost entirely on the towns and ranches.
In 1865 it was proposed to set aside two reservations for these
Indians in Carson and Washoe Valleys, but white settlers had
already occupied the territory and the plan was abandoned.
Population.- Mooney (1928) made an ostimate of 1,000 as of 1846.
In 1859 they numbered about 900. In 1907, 300 were reported. The
census of 1910 reported 819; that of 1930, 668. In 1937, 629 were
reported.
Connections in which they have become noted.- The name Washo is
preserved in the names of Washoe County, Washoe Lake, Washoe
Valley, and Washoe, a post hamlet, all in Nevada. Another
locality called Washoe is in Carbon County, Montana.
New Hampshire -
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Abnaki. Parts of Grafton County were occupied by thc Ossipee and
Pequawket bands, affiliated with the Sokoki of the Abnaki tribe.
(See Maine.)
Pennacook. Gerard (Hodge, 1910) says the name is "cognate with
Abnaki penakuk, or penankuk, `at the bottom of the hill or
highland,'" but Speck says simply "down hill." Also called:
Merrimac, from the river of that name.
Nechegansett, name given by Gookin (1792)
Owaragees, Iroquois name (fide Colden (1747).
Connections.- The Pennacook belonged to the Algonquian linguistic
stock, their nearest relatives being the Abnaki, with whom they
were frequently classed, and thc Penobscot, Passamaquoddy. and
Malecite.
Location.- In southern and central New Hampshire, northeastern
Massachusetts, and the southernmost part of Maine. (See also
Maine, Massachusetts, and Vermont.)
Subdivisions and Villages
Accominta, at or near the site of York, Maine.
Agawam, at Ipswich, Mass.
Amoskeag, at Amoskeag Falls on the Merrimack River.
Coosuc, a division along Connecticut River between Upper and
Lower Ammonoosuc Rivers, the principal village apparently near
the mouth of the latter.
Nashua, a division along the upper course of Nashua River, the
village being near Leominster, Mass.
Naumkeag, at Salem, Mass.
Nenichawanoc, a division on upper Piscataqua River and Salmon
Falls River in Maine and New Hampshire, the principal village
being near Berwick, Maine.
Pennacook, a division on both banks of Merrimack River above and
below Concord, the village of the same name being on the site of
Concord.
Pentucket, at Haverhill, Mass.
Pinataqua, on Piscataqua River near Dover.
Souhegan, a division on Souhegan River, Hillsborough County, with
the village of the same name probably near Amherst, formerly
called Souhegan.
Squamscot, on Exeter River near Exeter, Rockingham County.
Wachuset, a division on the upper Nashua River, Mass., the
village of the same name being located probably near Princeton.
Wamesit, a division on the south bank of Merrimack River below
the mouth of Concord River, Mass., the village of the same name
being near Lowell.
Weshacum, at Weshacum Ponds, near Sterling, Mass.
Winnecowet, in Rockingham county.
Winnipesaukee, around the lake of the same name.
History.- The early history of the Pennacook was like that of the
Abnaki except that they were earlier affected by the English
settlements on Massachusetts Bay. In King Philip's War (1675-76)
the Nashua and Wachuset tribes joined the hostiles, but the
greater part of the Pennacook, under Wannalancet, remained on
friendly terms until the treacherous seizure of about 200 of
their number by Waldron in 1676 They then abandoned their country
an{l the greater part removed to Canada, where they ultimately
joined the Abnaki and other Indians of St. Francis. The remainder
were finally settled at Scaticook, Rensselaer County, N. Y.
Population.- The number of Pennacook is estimated by Mooney
(1928) at 2,000 in 1600 and 1,250 in 1676. The remnant is
included among the 250 St. Francis Indians returned in 1924.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The town of Penacook
and Lake Penacook, Merrimack County, are named after the
Pennacook, as well as a branch station of the Concord Post
Office, and their name also appears in Whittier's poem "The
Bridal of Pennacook."
New Jersey
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Delaware. The name is derived from that of Delaware River. which
in turn, was named for Lord Delaware, second governor of
Virginia. Also called:
Abnaki or Wabanaki, "Easterners," from their position
relative to many other Algonquian tribes. (See Abnaki under
Maine, Wampanoag under Massachusetts, and Wappinger under New
York.)
A-ko-tca-ka'nea, "One who stammers in his speech," the
Mohawk name. The Oneida and Tuscarora names were similar.
Anakwanoki, Cherokee name, an attempt at Wabanaki.
Lenni Lenape (their own name), meaning "true men," or
"standard men".
Loup, "wolf," so called by the French.
Mochomes, "grandfather," name given by those Algonquian
tribes which claimed descent from them.
Nar-wah-ro, Wichita name.
Renni Renape, a form of Lenni Lenape.
Tca-ka'nea, shortened form of Mohawk name given above.
(The names in the languages of the other four Iroquois tribes are
about the same).
Connections.- The Delaware belonged to the Algonquian linguistic
stock, their closest relatives being the Nanticoke, Conoy, and
Powhatan Indians to the south and the Mahican, Wappinger, and
southern New England Indians on the north. The dialect of the
northernmost of their major divisions, the Munsee, differed
considerably from that of the southern groups.
Location.- The Delaware occupied all of the State of New Jersey,
the western end of Long Island, all of Staten and Manhattan
Islands and neighboring parts of the mainland, along with other
portions of New York west of the Hudson, and parts of eastern
Pennsylvania, and northern Delaware. (See also Delaware,
Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland and the District of Columbia,
Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and the Munsee
under Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wisconsin.)
Subdivisions
There were three major divisions or subtribes, the Munsee in
northern New Jersey and adjacent portions of New York west of the
Hudson, the Unalachtigo in northern Delaware, southeastern
Pennsylvania, and southern New Jersey, and the Unami in the
intermediate territory, extending to the western end of Long
Island. Each comprised a great many minor divisions which it is
not always easy to classify under the three main heads. As Munsee
may probably be reckoned the following.
Catskill, on Catskill Creek, Greene County, N. Y.
Mamekoting, in Mamakating Valley, west of the Shawangunk
Mountains, N. Y.
Minisink, on the headwaters of Delaware River in the southwestern
part of Ulster and Orange Counties, N. Y., and the adjacent parts
of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
Waranawonkong, in the country watered by the Esopus, Wallkill,
and Shawangunk Creeks, mainly in Ulster County, N. Y.
Wawarsink, centered about the junction of Wawarsing and Rondout
Creeks, Ulster County, N. Y.
We may class as Unami the following:
Aquackanonk, on Passaic River, N. J., and lands back from it
including the tract called Dundee in Passsaic.
Assunpink, on Stony Creek near Trenton.
Axion, on the eastem bank of Delaware River between Rancocas
Creek and Trenton.
Calcefar, in the interior of New Jersey between Rancocas
Creek and Trenton.
Canarsee, in Kings County, Long Island, on the southern end
of Manhattan Island, and the eastern end of Staten Island, N. Y.
Gachwechnagechga, on Lehigh River, Pa.
Hackensack, in the valleys of Hackensack and Passaic Rivers.
Haverstraw, on the western bank of the lower Hudson, in
Rockland County, N. Y.
Meletecunk, in Monmouth County.
Mosinan, on the eastern bank of Delaware River about
Trenton.
Navasink, on the highlands of Navesink, claiming the land
from Barnegst to the Raritan.
Pompton, on Pompton Creek.
Raritan, in the valley of Raritan River and on the left bank
of Delaware River as far down as the falls at Trenton.
Reckgawawanc, on the upper part of Manhattan Island and the
adjacent mainland of New York west of the Bronx.
Tappan, on the western bank of Hudson River in Rockland
County, N. Y., and Bergen County.
Waoranec, near Esopus Creek, Ulster County, N. Y.
The following may be considered as Unalachtigo, though I am in
some doubt about the Neshamini:
Amimenipaty, at site of a large pigment plant of the Du Pont
Company at Edgemoor, Del.
Asomoche, on the eastern bank of Delaware River between
Salem and Camden.
Chikohoki, at site of Crane Brook Church, on west side of
Delaware River near its junction with the Christanna River.
Erinonec, about Old Man's Creek in Salem or Gloucester
County.
Hopokohacking, on site now occupied by Wilmington, Del.
Kahansuk, about Low Creek, Cumberland County.
Manta, about Salem Creek.
Memankitonna, on the present site of Claynnont, Del., on
Naaman's Creek.
Nantuxet, in Pennsylvania and Delaware.
Naraticon, in southern New Jersey, probably on Raccoon
Creek.
Neshamini, on Neshaminy Creek, Bucks County, Pa.
Okahoki, on Ridley and Crum Creeks, Delaware County, Pa.
Passayonk, on Schuylkill River, Pa., and along the western
bank of Delaware River, perhaps extending into Delaware.
Shackamaxon, on the site of Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa.
Siconesse, on the eastern bank of Delaware River a short
distance above Salem.
Tirans, on the northern shore of Delaware Bay about Cape May
or in Cumberland County.
Yacomanshaghking, on a small stream about the present
Camden.
Villages
It will not be practicable to separate the villages belonging to
the three great divisions in all cases. The following are entered
in the Handbook of American Indians (Hodge, 1907, 1910):
Achsinnink, Unalachtigo village on Hocking River, Ohio, about
1770.
Ahasimus, probably Unami, in northern New Jersey.
Alamingo, a village, probably Delaware, on Susquehanna River.
Allaquippa, possible name of a settlement at the mouth of the
Youghiogheny River, Pa., in 1755.
Anderson's Town, on the south side of White River about Anderson,
Ind.
Au Glaize, on a southeastern branch of Maumee River, Ohio.
Bald Eagle's Nest, on the right bank of Bald Eagle Greek near
Milesburg, Pa.
Beaversville, near the junction of Buggy Creek and Canadian
River, Okla.
Beavertown, on the east side of the extreme eastern head branch
of Hocking River near Beavertown, Ohio.
Black Hawk, probably Delaware, about Mount Auburn, Shelby County,
Ind.
Black Leg's Village, probably Delaware, on the north bank of
Conemaugh River in the southeastern part of Armstrong County, Pa.
Buckstown, probably Delaware, on the southeast side of White
River, about 3 miles east of Anderson, Ind.
Bulletts Town, probably Delaware, in Coshocton County, Ohio, on
Muskingum River about halfway between Walhonding River and
Tomstown.
Cashiehtunk, probably Munsee, on Delaware River near the point
where it is met by the New Jersey State line.
Catawaweshink, probably Delaware, on or near Susquehanna River,
near Big Island, Pa.
Chikohoki, a Manta village on the site of Burlington, Burlington
County, N. J.
Chilohocki, probably Delaware, on Miami River, Ohio.
Chinklacamoose, probably Delaware, on the site of Clearfield, Pa.
Clistowacka, near Bethlehem, Pa.
Communipaw, village of the Hackensack, at Communipaw.
Conemaugh, probably Delaware, about Conemaugh, Pa.
Coshocton, on the site of Coshocton, Ohio.
Crossweeksung, in Burlington County, probably about Crosswicks.
Custaloga's Town, Unalachtigo, two villages, one near French
Creek, opposite Franklin, Pa., the other on Walhonding River,
near Killbucks Creek in Coshocton County, Ohio.
Edgpiiliik, in western New Jersey.
Erinonee, about Old Man's Creek in Salem or Gloucester County.
Frankstown, probably Delaware, about Frankstown, Pa.
Friedenshutten, a Moravian mission town on Susquehanna River a
few miles below Wyalusing, probably in Wyoming County, Pa.
Friedensstadt, in Beaver County, Pa., probably near Darlington.
Gekelemukpechuenk, in Ohio, and perhaps identical with White
Eyes' Town.
Gnadenhutten, three Moravian Mission villages, one on the north
side of Mahoning Creek near its junction with the Lehigh about
the present Lehighton; a second on the site of Weissport, Carbon
County, Pa.; and a third on the Muskingum River near the present
Gnadenhutten, Ohio. (Brinton (1885) says there were two more
towns of the same name.)
Goshgoshunk, with perhaps some Seneca, on Allegheny River about
the upper part of Venango County, Pa.
Grapevine Town, perhaps Delaware, 8 miles up Captina River,
Belmont County, Ohio.
Greentown, on the Black Fork of Mohican River near the boundary
of Richland and Ashland Counties, Ohio.
Gweghkongh, probably Unami, in northern New Jersey, near Staten
Island, or on the neighboring New York mainland.
Hespatingh, probably Unami, apparently in northern New Jersey,
and perhaps near Bergen or Union Hill.
Hickorytown, probably about East Hickory or West Hickory, Pa.
Hockhocken, on Hocking River, Ohio.
Hogstown, between Venango and Buffalo Greek, Pa., perhaps
identical with Kuskuski.
Jacobs Cabins, probably Delaware, on Youghiogheny River, perhaps
near Jacobs Creek, Fayette County, Pa.
Jeromestown, near Jeromesville, Ohio.
Kalbauvane, probably Delaware, on the headwaters of the west
branch of Susquehanna River, Pa.
Kanestio, Delaware and other Indians, on the upper Susquehanna
River, near Kanestio Creek in Steuben County, N. Y.
Kanhangton, about the mouth of Chemung River in the northern part
of Bradford County, Pa.
Katamoonchink, perhaps the name of a Delaware village near West
Whiteland, Chester County, Pa.
Kickenapawling, probably Delaware and Iroquois, at the junction
of Stony Creek with Conemaugh River, approximately on the site of
Johnstown, Pa.
Kiktheswemud, probably Delaware, near Anderson, Ind., perhaps
identical with Buckstown or Little Munsee Town.
Killbuck's Town, on the east side of Killbuck Creek, about 10
miles south of Wooster, Ohio.
Kishakoquilla, two towns successively occupied by a chief of the
name, one about Kishacoquillas, Mifflin County, Pa., the other
on French Creek about 7 miles below Meadville, Crawford County, Pa.
Kiskiminetas, on the south side of lower Kiskiminetas Creek, near
its mouth, Westmoreland County, Pa.
Kiskominitoes, on the north bank of Ohio River between the
Hocking and Scioto Rivers, Ohio.
Kittanning, divided into several settlements and mixed with
Iroquois and Caughnawaga, near Kittanning on Allegheny River,
Armstrong County, Pa.
Kohhokking, near "Painted Post" in Steuben County, N. Y., or
Elmira, Chemung County, N. Y.
Kuskuski, with Iroquois, on Beaver Creek, near Newcastle, in
Lawrence County, Pa.
Languntennenk, Moravian Delaware near Darlington, Beaver County,
Pa.
Lawunkhannek, Moravian Delaware on Allegheny River above
Franklin, Venango County, Pa.
Lichtenau, Moravian Delaware on the east side of Muskingum River,
3 miles below Coshocton, Ohio.
Little Munsee Town, Munsee, a few miles east of Anderson, Ind.
Macharienkonck, Minisink, in the bend of Delaware River, Pike
County, Pa., opposite Port Jervis.
Macocks, some distance north of Chikohoki, which was probably at
Wilmington, Del., perhaps the village of thc Okahoki in
Pennsylvania.
Mahoning, on the west bank of Mahoning River, perhaps between
Warren and Youngstown, Ohio.
Mechgachkamic, perhaps Unami, probably near Hackensack, N. J.
Meggeckessou, on Delaware River at Trenton Falls, N. J.
Meniolagomeka, on Aquanshicola Creek, Carbon County, Pa.
Meochkonck, Minisink, on the upper Delaware River in southeastern
New York.
Minisink, Minisink, in Sussex County, N. J., near where the State
line crosses Delaware River.
Munceytown, Munsee, on Thames River northwest of Brantford,
Ontario, Canada.
Muskingum, probably Delaware, on the west bank of Muskingum
River, Ohio.
Nain, Moravian Indians, principally Delaware, near Bethlehem, Pa.
Newcomerstown, village of Chief Newcomer, about the site of New
Comerstown, Tuscarawas County, Ohio.
Newtown, the name of three towns probably of the Delaware and
Iroquois, one on the north bank of Licking River, near the site
of the present Zanesville, Ohio, a second about the site of
Newtown, Ohio; and a third on tbe west side of Wills Creek near
the site of Cambridge, Ohio.
Nyack, probably Canarsee, about the site of Fort Hamilton, Kings
County, Long Island, afterward removed to Staten Island.
Nyack, Unami probably, on the west bank of Hudson River about the
present Nyack, N. Y.
Ostonwackin, with Cayuga, Oneida, and other Indians, on the site
of the present Montoursville, Pa.
Outaunink, Munsee, on the north bank of White River, opposite
Muncie, Ind.
Owl's Town, probably Delaware, on Mohican River, Coshocton
County, Ohio.
Pakadasank, probably Munsee, about the site of Crawford, Orange
County, N. Y.
Papagonk, probably Munsee, in Ulster County, N. Y,, also placed
near Pepacton, Delaware County, N. Y.
Passycotcung, on Chemung River, N. Y.
Peckwes, Munsee or Shawnee, about 10 miles from Hackensack.
Pematuning, probably Delaware, near Shenango, Pa.
Pequottink, Moravian Delaware, on the east bank of Huron River,
near Milan, Ohio.
Playwickey, probably Unalachtigo, in Bucks County, Pa.
Pohkopophunk, in eastern Pennsylvania, probably in Carbon County.
Queenashawakee, on the upper Susquehanna River, Pa.
Rarncock, Rancocas, in Burlington County.
Raystown, (?).
Remahenone, perhaps Unami, near New York City.
Roymount, near Cape May.
Salem, Moravian Delaware, on the west bank of Tuscarawas River, 1
1/2 miles southwest of Port Washington, Tuscarawas County,
Ohio.
Salt Lick, probably Delaware, on Mahoning River near Warren,
Ohio.
Sawcunk, with Shawnee and Mingo, near tbe mouth of Beaver Creek,
about the site of the present Beaver, Pa.
Sawkin, on the east bank of Delaware River in New Jersey.
Schepinaikonck, Minisink, perhaps in Orange County, N. Y.
Schipston, probably Delaware, at the head of Juniata River, Pa.
Schoenbrunn, Moravian Munsee, about 2 miles below the site of New
Philadelphia, Ohio.
Seven Houses, near the ford of Beaver Creek just above its mouth,
Beaver County, Pa.
Shackamaxon, on the site of Kensington, Philadelphia, Pa.
Shamokin, with Shawnee, Iroquois, and Tutelo, on north sides of
Susquehanna River including the island at the site of Sunbury,
Pa.
Shannopin's Town, on Allegheny River about 2 miles above its
junction with the Monongahela.
Shenango, with other tribes, the name of several towns, one on
the north bank of Ohio River a little below Economy, Pa.; one at
the junction of Conewango and the Allegheny; and one some
distance up Big Beaver, near Kuskuski (q. v.).
Sheshequin, with Iroquois, about 6 miles below Tioga Point,
Bradford County, Pa.
Soupnapka, on the east bank of Delaware River in New Jersey.
Three Legs Town, named from a chief, on the east bank of
Muskingum River a few miles south of the mouth of the Tuscarawas,
Coshocton County, Ohio.
Tioga, with Nanticoke, Mahican, Saponi, Tutelo, etc., on the site
of Athens, Pa.
Tom's Town, on Scioto River, a short distance below the present
Chillicothe and near the mouth of Paint Creek, Ohio.
Tullihas, with Mahican and Caughnawaga, on the west branch of
Muskingum River, Ohio, about 20 miles above the forks.
Tuscarawas, with Wyandot, on Tuscarawas River, Ohio, near the
mouth of Big Sandy River.
Venango, with Seneca, Shawnee, Wyandot, Ottawa, etc., at the site
of Franklin, Venango County, Pa.
Wechquetank, Moravian Delaware, about 8 miles beyond the Plue
Ridge, northwest from Bethlehem, Pa., probably near the present
Mauch Chunk.
Wekeeponall, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River, about the
mouth of Loyalstock Creek in Lycoming County, Pa., probably
identical with Queen Esther's Town.
Walagsmika, on the site of Nazareth, Lehigh County, Pa.
White-eyes Village, named from a chief, on the site of Duncan's
Falls, 9 miles below Zanesville, Ohio.
White Woman's Town, near the junction of Walhonding and Killbuck
Rivers about 7 miles northwest of the forks of the Muskingum
River, in Coshocto County, Ohio.
Will's Town, on the east bank of Muskinyum River at the mouth of
Wills Creek, Muskingum County, Ohio.
Woapikamikunk, in the valley of White River, Ind.
Wyalusing, Munsee and Iroquois, on the site of Wyalusing,
Bradford County Pa.
Wyoming, with Iroquois, Shawnee, Mahican, and Nanticoke; later
entirely Delaware and Munsee; principal settlement at the site of
Wilkes-Barre, Pa.
History.- The traditional history of the Delaware set forth in
the famous Walam Olum (see Brinton, 1882-85, vol. 5), gave them
an origin somewhere northwest of their later habitat. They were
found by the earliest white voyagers in the historic seats above
given. The Dutch came into contact with the Unami and Munsee
Delaware in 1609 and the Swedes with the Unalachtigo in 1637.
Both were succeeded by the English in 1664, but the most notable
event in Delaware history took place in 1682 when these Indians
held their first council with William Penn at what is now
Germantown, Philadelphia. About 1720 the Iroquois assumed
dominion over them and they were gradually crowded west by the
white colonists, reaching the Allegheny as early as 1724, and
settling at Wyoming and other points on the Susquehanna about
1742. In 1751, by invitation of the Huron, they began to form
villages in eastern Ohio, and soon the greater part of them were
on the Muskingum and other Ohio streams. Backed by the French and
by other western tribes, they now freed themselves from Iroquois
control and opposed the English settlers steadily until the
treaty of Greenville in 1795. Notable missionary work was done
among them by the Moravians in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. About 1770 they received permission from the Miami and
Piankashaw to settle between the Ohio and White Rivers, Ind. In
1789, by permission of the Spanish government, a part moved to
Missouri and later to Arkansas, along with a band of Shawnee, and
by 1820 they had found their way to Texas. By 1835 most of the
bands had been gathered on a reservation in Kansas, but in 1867
the greater part of these removed to the present Oklahoma, where
some of them occupied a corner of the Cherokee Nation. Others are
with the Caddo and Wichita in southwestern Oklahoma, a few Munsee
are with the Stockbridges in Wisconsin, and some are scattered in
other parts of the United States. In Ontario, Canada, are three
bands- the Delawares of Grand River, near Hagersville; the
Moravians of the Thames, near Bothwell; and the Munceys of the
Thames, near Muncey- nearly all of whom are of the Munsee
division.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 8,000
Delaware in 1600 not including the Canarsee of Long Island;
estimates made during tbe eighteenth century vary between 2,400
and 3,000; nineteenth-century estimates are much lower, and the
United States Census of 1910 returned 914 Delawares and 71
Munsee, or a total of 985, to which must be added the bands in
Canada, making perhaps 1,600 all together. 140 Delaware were
reported on the Wichita Reservation, Okla., in 1937.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Delaware are
noted as one of the very few tribes which have come to be known
by an English term, and as one of the chief antagonists of the
Whites while the latter were forcing their way westward, but in
later years as furnishing the most reliable scouts in White
employ. A different sort of fame has been attained by one of
their early chiefs, Tamenend, whose name, in the form Tammany,
was applied to a philanthropic society, a place of meeting, and a
famous political organization. Delaware chiefs signed the famous
treaty with Penn under the oak at Shackamaxon, and their tribes
occupied Manhattan Island and the shores of New York Harbor at
the arrival of the Dutch. The name Delaware has been used for
postoffices in Arkansas, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, New Jersey,
Ohio, and Oklahoma, besides the State of Delaware. Lenape is a
post village in Leavenworth County, Kans., and Lenapah in Nowata
County, Okla.
New Mexico
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Apache. Probably from apachu, "enemy," the Zuni name for the
Navaho who were designated "Apaches de Nabaju" by the early
Spaniards in New Mexico. The name has also been applied to
some Yuman tribes, the Apache Mohave (Yavapai) and the Apache
Yuma. Also called:
Ahadje, Havasupai name for at least Tonto and White Mountain
Apache.
Ai-a'-ta, Panamint name.
Atokuwe, Kiowa name.
Awatch or Awatche, Ute name.
Chah'-shm, Santo Domingo Keres name.
Chishye, Laguna name.
Ha-ma-kaba-mitc kwa-dig, Mohave name, meaning "far-away
Mohave."
H'iwana, Taos name.
Igihua'-a, Havasupai name.
Inde or N'de, own name.
Jarosoma, Pima name (from Kino).
Mountain Comanche, by Yoakum (1855-56).
Muxtsuhintan, Cheyenne name.
Oop, Papago name.
Op, or Awp, Pima name.
Poanln, Sandia and Isleta name (Hodge, 1895).
P'onin, Isleta name (Gatschet, MS., B. A. E.).
Shis-Inday, own name meaning "men of the woods," because
their winter quarters were always in the forest.
Ta-ashi, Comanche name, meaning "turned up," and having
reference to their moccasins.
Tagui, Old Kiowa name.
Tagukeresh, Pecos name.
Tashin, Comanche name (Mooney, 1898).
Taxkahe, Arapaho name.
Thah-a-i-nin', Arapaho name, meaning "people who play on
bone instruments," meaning two bison ribs, one notched, over
which the other is rubbed.
Tinna'-ash, Wichita name.
Tshishe, Laguna name.
Utce-ci-nyu-muh or Utsaamu, or Yotche-eme, Hopi name.
Xa-he'-ta-no', Cheyenne name meaning "those who tie their
hair back."
Connections.- Together with the Navaho, the Apache constituted
the western group of the southern division of the Athapascan
linguistic stock (Hoijer, 1938).
Location.- In southern New Mexico and Arizona, western Texas,
and southeastern Colorado, also ranging over much of northern
Mexico. (See also Kansas, Oklahoma, and Mexico.)
Subdivisions
On linguistic grounds Hoijer (1938) divides the southern
Athapascans into two main groups, a western and an eastern. The
latter includes the Jicarilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache, the two
former being more closely related to each other than either is to
the Kiowa Apache. In the western group Hoijer again distinguishes
two major subdivisions, the Navaho, and the San
Carlos-Chiricahua-Mescalero. The Navaho are always regarded as a
distinct tribe and will be so treated here. Separate treatment is
also being given to the Jiearilla, Lipan, and Kiowa Apache.
The rest of the southern Athapascans will be placed under the
present head, it being freely admitted at the same time that such
treatment is mainly a matter of convenience and that it is
impossible to say how many and what southern Athapascan divisions
should be given tribal status. What is here called the Apache
Tribe may be classified as follows with the locations of the
divisions, basing the scheme on the classifications of Hoijer and
Goodwin (1935):
1. San Carlos Group:
San Carlos proper:
Apache Peaks Band, in the Apache Mountains, northeast of
Globe.
Arivaipa Band, on Arivaipa Creek.
Pinal Band, between Salt and Gila Rivers in Gila and Pinal
Counties.
San Carlos Band, in the region of San Carlos River between
Cila and Salt Rivers.
White Mountain Group:
Eastern White Mountain Band, in the region of the upper Gila
and Salt Rivers in southeastern Arizona.
Western White Mountain Band, in the same region between the
Eastern Band and the San Carlos Band.
Cibecue Group:
Canyon Creck Band, centering on Canyon Creck in Gila and
Navajo Counties.
Carrizo Band, on Carrizo Creek in Gila County.
Cibicue Band, on Cibecue Creek between the two last.
Southern Tonto Croup:
Mazatzal Band, about the Mazatzal Mountains.
Six semibands: north of Roosevelt Lake; on the upper Tonto Creek;
between the upper Tonto and the East Verde; west of the preceding
between the East Verde, Tonto, and Verde; north of the East
Verde; and from Cherry Creek to Clear Creek.
Northern Tonto Group:
Bald Mountain Band, about Bald Mountain, south of Camp
Verde.
Fossil Creek Band, on Fossil Creck between Gila and Yavapai
Counties.
Mormon Lake Band, centering on Mormon Lake south of
Flagstaff.
Oak Creek Band, about Oak Creek south of Flagstaff.
2. Chiricahua-Mescalero Group:
Gilenos Group:
Chiricahua Band, about the Chiricahna Mountains in
southwestern Arizona.
Mimbreno Band, centered in the Mimbres Mountains in
southwestern New Mexico.
Mogollon Band, about the Mogollon Mountains in Catron and
Grant Counties, N. Mex.
Warm Spring Band, at the head of Gila River.
Mescalero Group:
Faraon or Apache Band of Pharaoh, a southern division of the
Mescalero. Mescalero Band, mainly between the Rio Grande and
Pecos Rivers, N. Mex.
The term Querecho, as well as Vaquero, was applied rather
generally to Apache by the Spaniards but probably more
particularly to the Mescslero and their allies Under Lianero were
included Mescalcro, Jicarilla, and even some Comanche. The term
Coyotero has been applied to some of the San Carlos divisions
and recently by Murdock (1941) to all.
History.- The Apache tribes had evidently drifted from the north
during the prehistoric period, probably along the eastern flanks
of the Rocky Mountains. When Coronado encountered them in 1540
under the name Querechos, they were in eastern New Mexico and
western Texas, and they apparently did not reach Arizona until
after the middle of the sixteenth century. They were first called
Apache by Onate in 1598. After that time their history was one
succession of raids upon the Spanish territories, and after the
United States Government had supplanted that of Mexico in the
Southwest, the wars with the Apache constituted some of the most
sensational chapters in our military annals. Except for some
Apache in Mexico and a few Lipans with the Tonkawa and Kiowa in
Oklahoma, these people were finally gathered into reservations in
New Mexico and Arizona.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimated that all of the Apache
proper numbered 5,000 in 1680. The census of 1910 gives 6,119
Apache of all kinds, excluding only the Kiowa Apache, and the
Report of the United States Indian Office for 1923 enumerates
6,630. If an increase has actually occurred, it is to be
attributed to the captives taken by these people from all the
surrounding tribes and from the Mexicans. The census of 1930
returned 6,537 but this includes the Jicarilla and Lipan. The
Apache proper would number about 6,000. However, the Indian
Office Report for 1937 gives 6,916 exclusive of the Jicarilla.
Connection in which they have become noted.- Apache is one of the
best-known Indian tribal names. This is due (1) to the warlike
character of the people bearing it, (2) to their constant
depredations along the Spanish and American frontiers, and (3) to
the severe and difficult fighting made necessary before they were
forced to give up their ancient raiding proclivities. The word
has, therefore, been taken over to some extent into literature
when it is desired to describe fierce and ruthless individuals,
and in this sense it has been given local application to some of
the criminal elements of Paris. The name Apache is given to
villages in Cochise County, Ariz., and Caddo County, Okla., and
Apache Creek is a place in Catron County, N. Mex.
Comanche. In the Spanish period, the Comanche raided into and
across the territory of New Mexico repeatedly. (See Texas.)
Jemez. Corrupted from Ha'-mish or Hae'-mish, the Keresan name
of the pueblo. Also spelled Amayes, Ameias, Amejes, Emeges,
Gemes, etc. Also called:
Mai-dec-kiz-ne, Navaho name, meaning "wolf neck."
Tu'-wa, own name of pueblo.
Uala-to-hua or Walatoa, own name of pueblo, meaning "village
of the bear. "
Wong'-ge, Santa Clara and Ildefonso name, meaning "Navaho
place."
Connections.- With the now extinct Pecos, the Jemez constituted
a distinct group of the Tanoan linguistic family now a part of
the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.
Location.- On the north bank of Jemez River, about 20 miles
northwest of Bernalino.
Villages
The following names of villages have been recorded as formerly
occupied by the Jemez but the list may contain some duplication:
Amushungkwa, on a mesa west of the Hot Springs, about 12 miles
north of Jemez pueblo.
Anyukwinu, north of Jemez pueblo.
Astialakwa, on the summit of a mesa that separates San Diego and
Guadalupe Canyons at their mouths.
Bulitzequa, exact site unknown.
Catroo, site not identified.
Ceca, not identified.
Guatitruti, not identified.
Guayoguia, not identified.
Gyusiwa, one-half mile north of Jemez Hot Springs, on a slope
descending to the river from the east in Sandoval County.
Hanakwa, not identified.
Kiashita, in Guadalupe Canyon, north of Jemez pueblo.
Kiatsukwa, not identified.
Mecsstria, not identified.
Nokyuntseleta, not identified.
Nonyishagi, not identified.
Ostyalakwa, not identified.
Patoqua, on a ledge of the mesa which separates Guadalupe nnd San
Diego Canyons, 6 miles north of Jemez pueblo.
Pebulikwa, not identified.
Pekwiligii, not identified.
Potre, not identified.
Seshukwa, not identified.
Setokwa, about 2 miles south of Jemez pueblo.
Towakwa, not identified.
Trea, not identified.
Tyajuindena, not identified.
Uahatzae, not identified.
Wabakwa, on a mesa north of Jemez pueblo.
Yjar, not identified.
Zolatungzezhii, not identified.
History.- The Jemez came from the north, according to tradition,
settling in the valleys of the upper tributaries of the Jemez
River and at last in the sandy valley of the Jemez proper.
Castaneda, the chronicler of Coronado's expedition, mentions
seven towns belonging to the Jemez tribe besides three in the
region of Jemez Hot Springs. After they had been missionized they
were induced to abandon their towns by degrees until about 1622
they became concentrated into the pueblos of Gyusiwa and probably
Astialakwa. Both pueblos contained chapels, probably dating from
1618, but before the Pueblo revolt of 1680 Astialakwa was
abandoned and another pueblo, probably Patoqua, established.
About the middle of the seventeenth century, in conjunction with
the Navaho, the Jemez twice plotted insurrection against the
Spaniards. After the insurrection of 1680 the Jemez were attacked
by Spanish forces led successively by Otermin, Cruznte, and
Vargas, the last of whom stormed the mesa in July 1694, killed 84
Indians, and after destroying Patoqua and two other pueblos,
returned to Santa Fe with 361 prisoners and a large quantity of
stores. Gyusiwa was the only Jemez pueblo reoccupied, but in 1696
there was a second revolt and the Jemez finally fled to the
Navaho country, where they remained for a considerable time
before returning to their former home. Then they built their
present village, called by them Walatoa, "Village of the Bear."
In 1728, 108 of the inhabitants died of pestilence. In 1782 Jemez
was made a visita of the mission of Sia. In 1838 they were joined
by the remnant of their relatives, the Pecos Indians from the
upper Rio Pecos. Their subsequent history has been uneventful.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates the Jemez population at
2,500 in 1680. In 1890 it was 428; in 1904, 498, including the
remnant of Pecos Indians; in 1910, 499. In 1930 the entire Tanoan
stock numbered 3,412. In 1937 the Jemez Indians numbered 648.
Jicarilla. An Apache tribe which ranged over the northeastern
corner of New Mexico. (See Colorado.)
Keresan Pueblos. Keresan is adapted from K'eres, their own
designation. Also called:
Biernl'n, Sandia name.
Cherechos, Onate in 1598.
Drinkers of the Dew, Zuni traditional name.
Ing-we-pi'-ran-di-vi-he-man, San Ildefonso Tewa name.
Pabierni'n, Isleta name.
Connections.- These Indians constituted an independent stock
having no affiliations with any other.
Location.- On the Rio Grande, in north central New Mexico,
between the Rio de los Frijoles and the Rio Jemez, and on the
latter stream from the pueblo of Sia to its mouth.
Subdivisions and Villages
The Keresan Indians are divided dialectically into an Eastern
(Queres) Group and a Western (Sitsime or Kawaiko) Group,
comprising the following pueblos:
Eastern (Queres) Group:
Cochiti, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, 27 miles
southwest of Santa Fe.
San Felipe, on the west bank of the Rio Grande about 12
miles above Bernalillo.
Santa Ana, on the north bank of the Rio Jemez.
Santo Domingo, on the east bank of the Rio Grande about 18
miles above Bernalillo.
Sia, on the north bank of Jemez River about 16 miles
northwest of Bernalillo.
Western (Sitsime or Kawaiko) Group:
Acoma, on a rock mesa or penol, 357 feet in height, about 60
miles west of the Rio Grande, in Valencia Gounty.
Laguna, on the south bank of San Jose River, in Valencia
County.
In addition to the above principal towns, we have the following
ancient towns and later out-villages recorded:
Former towns of Cochiti and San Felipe:
At the Potrero de las Vacas.
At Tyuonyi or Rito de 109 Frijoles.
Haatze, near the foot of the Sierra San Miguel, about
Cochiti Pueblo.
Hanut Cochiti, about 12 miles northwest of Cochiti Pueblo.
Kuapa, in the Canada da de Cochiti, 12 miles northwest of
Cochiti Pueblo.
Former towns of Santo Domingo:
At the Potrero de la Canada Quemada
Gipuy, two towns on the bands of the Arroyo de Galisteo,
more than a mile east of the present station of Thornton; (2)
west of No. 1.
Huashpatzena, on the Rio Grande.
Former towns of Sia:
Opposite Sia are the ruins of a town called Kakanatzia and
south of it another called Kohasaya which may have been former
Sia settlements.
Former towns of Acoma
Kashkachuti, location unknown.
Katzimo or the Enchanted Mesa, about 3 miles northeast of
the present Acoma Pueblo.
Kowina, on a low mesa opposite the spring at the head of
Cebollita Valley, about 15 miles west of Acoma.
Kuchtya, location unknown.
Tapitsiama, on a mesa 4 or 5 miles northeast of their
present pueblo.
Tslama, the ruins are situated at the mouth of Cahada de la
Cruz, at or near the present Laguna village of Tsima.
Later villages:
Acomita, about 15 miles north of Acoma.
Heashkowa, about 2 miles southeast of Acoma.
Pueblito, about 15 miles north of Agoma.
History.- Like the other Pueblo peoples of New Mexico, the
Keresims traced their origin to the underworld, whence they had
emerged at an opening called Shipapu. According to the tradition,
they afterward drifted south slowly to the Rio Grande, where they
took up their residence in the Rito de 109 Frijoles, or Tyuonyi,
and constructed the cliff dwellings found there today excavated
in the friable volcanic tufa. Long before the coming of
Europeans, they had abandoned the Rito and moved farther south,
separating into a number of autonomous village communities.
Coronado, who visited them in 1540, reported seven of these. In
1583 Espejo encountered them and in 1598 Onate. Missions were
established in most of the principal towns early in the
seventeenth century, but they were annihilated and Spanish
dominion temporarily brought to an end by the great Pueblo
rebellion of 1680, which was not finally quelled until about the
end of the eighteenth century. Afterward, missionary work was
resumed but without pronounced success, while the native
population itself gradually declined in numbers. Although some of
the most conservative pueblos belong to this group, they will not
be able indefinitely to resist the dissolving force of American
civilization in which they are immersed.
Population.- In 1760 there were 3,956 Keresans; In 1790-93,
4,021; in 1805, 3,653; in 1850, 3,342; in 1860, 2,676; in 1871,
3,317; in 1901-5, 4,249; in 1910, 4,027; in 1930, 4,134; in 1937,
5,781.
Kiowa. The Kiowa raided into and across New Mexico in the Spanish
and early American period. (See Oklahoma.)
Kiowa Apache. The Kiowa Apache were an Athapascan tribe
incorporated into and accompanying the Kiowa. (See Oklahoma.)
Lipan. The Lipan were the easternmost of the Apache tribes. (See
Apache and also Texas.)
Manso. A Spanish word meaning "mild." Also called:
Gorretss, by Zarate-Salmeron.
Lanos, by Perea (1632-33).
Connections.- The Manso belonged to the Tanoan division of the
Kiowa-Tanoan linguistic stock.
Location.- About Mesilla Valley, in the vicinity of the present
Las Cruces, N. Mex.
Villages
The mission of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de los Mansos was
founded among them but none of the native names of their villages
are known.
History- Shortly before the appearance of the Spaniards in their
country, the Manso lived in substantial houses like the Pueblo
Indians generally but changed these to dwellings of reeds and
wood. They were relocated at a spot near El Paso in 1659 by Fray
Garcia de San Francisco, who established the above-mentioned
mission among them. The remnant of the Manso are now associated
in one town with the Tiwa and Piro.
Population.- In 1668, when the mission of Nuestra Senora de
Guadalupe de los Mansos was dedicated, Vetancourt states that it
contained upward of 1,000 parishioners. Very few of Manso blood
remain.
Navaho, Navajo. From Tewa Navahu, referring to a large area of
cultivated land and applied to a former Tewa pueblo, and by
extension to the Navaho, known to the Spaniards as "Apaches de
Navajo," who intruded on the Tewa domain or who lived in the
vicinity, to distinguish them from other so-called Apache bands.
Also called:
Bagowits, Southern Ute name.
Dacabimo, Hopi name.
Davaxo, Kiowa Apache name.
Dine', own name.
Djene, Laguna name.
Hua'amhu'u, Havasupai nnme.
I'hl-dene, Jicarilla name.
Moshome, Keresan name.
Oop, Oohp, Pima name.
Pagowitch, southern Ute name, meaning "reed knives."
Ta-cab-ci-nyu-muh, Hopi name.
Ta'hli'mnin, Sandia name.
Tasamewa, Hopi name (Ten Kate, 1885) meaning "bastards."
Te'liemnim, Isleta name.
Tenye, Laguna name.
Wild Coyotes, Zuni nickname translated.
Yabipais Nsbajay, Garces (1776).
Yatilatlavi, Tonto name.
Yoetaha or Yutaha, Apache name, meaning "those who live on
the border of the Ute."
Yu-i'-ta, Panamint name.
Yutilap, Yavapai name.
Yutilatlawi, Tonto name
Connections.- With the Apache tribes, the Navaho formed the
southern division of the Athapascan linguistic family.
Location.- In northern New Mexico and Arizona with some extension
into Colorado and Utah.
History.- Under the loosely applied name Apache there may be a
record of this tribe as early as 1598 but the first mention of
them by the name of Navaho is by Zarate-Salmeron about 1629.
Missionaries were among them about the middle of the eighteenth
century, but their labors seem to have borne no fruits. For many
years previous to the occupation of their country by the United
States, the Navaho kept up an almost constant predatory war with
the Pueblo Indians and the White settlers. A revolution in their
economy was brought about by the introduction of sheep. Treaties
of peace made by them with the United States Government in 1846
and 1849 were not observed, and in 1863, in order to put a stop
to their depredations, Col. "Kit" Carson invaded their country,
killed so many of their sheep as to leave them without means of
support, and carried the greater part of the tribe as prisoners
to Fort Sumner and the Bosque Redondo on the Rio Pecos. They were
restored to their country in 1867 and given a new supply of sheep
and goats, and since then they have remained at peace and
prospered greatly, thanks to their flocks and the sale of their
famous blankets.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 8,000 Navaho
in 1680. In 1867 an incomplete enumeration gave 7,300. In 1869
there were fewer than 9,000. The census of 1890, taken on a
faulty system, gave 17,204. The census of 1900 returned more than
20,000 and that of 1910, 22,455. The report of the United States
Indian Office for 1923 gives more than 30,000 on the various
Navaho reservations, and the 1930 census 39,064, while the Indian
Office Report for 1937 entered 44,304.
Connection in which they have become noted.- This tribe has
acquired considerable fame from its early adoption of a shepherd
life after the introduction of sheep and goats, and from the
blankets woven by Navaho women and widely known to collectors and
connoisseurs. The name has become affixed, in the Spanish form
Navajo, to a county, creek, and spring in Arizona; a post village
in Apache County, Ariz.; a mountain in New Mexico; and a place in
Daniels County, Mont. In southwestern Oklahoma is a post village
known as Navajoe. The tribe has attracted an unusual amount of
attention from ethnologists and from writers whose interests are
purely literary.
Pecos. From P'e'-a-ku', the Keresan name of the pueblo. Also
called:
Acuye, Cicuye, probably the name of a former pueblo,
Tshiquite or Tgiquite.
Aqiu, Pecos and Jemez name.
Hiokuo'k, Isleta Tiwa name
K'ok'-o-ro-t'u'-yu, Pecos name of pueblo.
Los Angeles, mission name.
Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula, full church
name.
Paego, Keresan name of Pueblo.
Paequiu or Paequiuala, Keresan name of tribe.
P'a-qu-lah, Jemez name.
Peahko, Santa Ana name.
Peakuni, Laguna name of Pueblo.
Tamos, from Espejo.
Connections.- The Pecos belonged to the Jemez division of the
Tanoan linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan
stock.
Location.- On an upper branch of Pecos River, about 30 miles
southeast of Santa Fe.
Villages
The following are names of ruined Pecos villages:
Kuuanguala, a few miles southeast of Pecos, near Arsoyo
Amarillo, at the present site of Rowe.
Pomojoua, near San Antonio del Pueblo, 3 miles southeast of
San Miguel, San Miguel County.
San Jose, modern Spanish name of locality.
Seyupa, a few miles southeast of Pecos, at the site of the
village of Fulton, San Miguel County.
Tonchuun, 5 miles southeast of Pecos Pueblo.
History.- According to tradition, the Pecos came originally from
some place to the north of their historic seats, but their last
migration was from the southeast where they occupied successively
the now ruined pueblos at San Jose and Kingman before locating at
their final settlement. Pecos was first visited by Coronado in
1540 and afterward by Espejo in 1583, Castaho de Sosa in 1590-91,
and Onate in 1598. During the governorship of Onate, missionaries
were assigned to Pecos, and the great church, so long a landmark
of the Santa Fe Trail, was erected about 1617. The town suffered
severely from attacks of the Apache of the Plains and afterward
from the Comanche. In the Pueblo revolts of 1680-96 it took an
active part and suffered proportionately. In 1782 the Pecos
mission was abandoned, the place becoming a visita of Santa Fe. A
few years later nearly every man in the Pecos tribe is said to
have been killed in a raid by the Comanche, epidemics decreased
the numbers of the remainder, and in 1838, the old town of Pecos
was abandoned. The 17 surviving Pecos Indians moved to Jamez,
where their descendants still live.
Population.- At the time of Coronado's visit in 1540 the
population was estimated as 2,000-2,500. In 1630 and 1680 there
were 2,000 Pecos; in 1760, 599 (including Galisteo); in 1790-93,
152; in 1805, 104; in 1838, 17; in 1910, 10.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The name Pecos seems
assured of permanent preservation as applied to Pecos River,
Tex., the largest branch of the Rio Grande, as well as to Pecos
County, Tex., and its principal town, and also to a place in San
Miguel County, New Mex., adjacent to the ruins of the aboriginal
village. The latter are well known as a result of the
archeological work done there by Dr. A. V. Eidder for the
Department of Archeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.
Piro Pueblos. Significance of Piro unknown. Also called:
Nortenos, "northerners" in Spanish, because inhabiting the
region of El Paso del Norte (may also refer to Tiwa).
Tukahun, Isleta Tiwa name for all pueblos below their
village, meaning "southern pueblos."
Connections.- They were a division of the Tanoan linguistic
family, which in turn is a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.
Location and major subdivisions.- In the early part of the
seventeenth century the Piro comprised two divisions, one
inhabiting the Rio Grande Valley from the present town of San
Marcial, Socorro County, northward to within about 50 miles of
Albuquerque, where the Tiwa settlements began; and the other,
sometimes called Tompiros and Salineros, occupying an area east
of the Rio Grande in the vicinity of the salt lagoons, or
salinas, where they adjoined the eastern group of Tiwa
settlements on the south.
Towns
Abo, on the Arroyo del Empedradillo, about 25 miles east of the
Rio Grande and 20 miles south of Manzano, in Valencia County
Agua Nueva, on the Rio Grande between Socorro and Servilleta.
Alamillo, on the Rio Grande about 12 miles north of Socorro.
Barrancas, on the Rio Grande near Socorro.
Qualacu, on the east bank of the Rio Grande near the foot of the
Black Mesa, on or near the site of San Marcial.
San Felipe, on the Rio Grande, probably near the present San
Marcial, Socorro County.
San Pascual, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, opposite the
present San Antonio village, Socorro County
Senecu, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, at the site of the
present village of San Antonio, 13 miles below Socorro.
Senecu del Sur (also Tiwa), on the southeast bank of the Rio
Grande, a few miles below El Paso, in Chihuahua, Mexico.
Sevilleta, on the east bank of the Rio Grande about 20 miles
above Socorro.
Socorro or Pilabo, on the site of the present Socorro.
Socorro del Sur, on both sides of the Rio Grande a few miles
below El Paso, Tex.
Tabira, at the southern apex of the Mesa de log Jumanos,
northeast of the present Socorro.
Tenabo, probably at the Siete Arroyos, northeast of Socorro and
east of the Rio Grande.
Teypana, nearly opposite the present town of Socorro, on the east
bank of the Rio Grande, in Socorro County.
Tenaquel (?).
Following are names of deserted pueblos near the lower Rio Crande
which were also in all probability occupied by the Piro:
Amo. Pueblo de la Parida, same location as
Aponitre. Pueblos Blanco and Colorado.
Aquicsbo. Pueblo del Alto, on
the east side of the Rio Grande,
Atepua. 6 miles south of Belen.
Ayqui. Queelquelu.
Calciati. Quialpo.
Canocan. Quiapo.
Cantensapue. Quiomaquf.
Cunquilipinoy. Quiubaco.
Encaquiagualaaca. Tecahanqualahamo.
Huertas, 4 miles Teeytraan.
below Socorro.
Peixoloe. Tercao.
Pencoana. Texa.
Penjeacu. Teyaxa.
Pesquis. Trelagu.
Peytre. Trelaquepu.
Polooca. Treyey.
Preguey. Treypual.
Pueblo Blanco, on the Trula.
west rim of the Medano,
or great sand-flow,
east of the Tuzahe.
Rio Grande.
Vumahein.
Pueblo Colorado, same Yancomo.
locationas Pueblo
Blanco. Zumaque.
The following deserted pueblos were inhabited either by the Piro
or the Tiwa:
Acoli. Axauti.
Agpey. Chein.
Alie. Cizentetpi.
Amaxa. Couna.
Apena. Dhiu.
Atuyama. Hohota.
Mejia, 5 leagues below Isleta. San Francisco, on the lower
Rio Grande between
Quanquiz. El Paso, Tex, and San
Salineta, 4 leagues from Lorenzo.
Guadelupe Mission at
El Paso, Tex. Xatoe.
San Bautista, on the
Rio Grande, 16 Xiamela (?).
miles below Sevilleta. Yonalus.
All the above pueblos not definitely located were probably
situated in the Salinas in the vicinity of Abo.
History.- The western or Rio Grande branch of the Piro was
visited by members of Coronado's Expedition in 1540, by
Chamuscado in 1580, by Espejo in 1583, by Onate in 1598, and by
Santa Fe to the mouth of the Rio Chama, including also Hano; and
began in 1626, and the efforts of the monks combined with the
threats of Apache raids to induce the Indians to concentrate into
a smaller number of towns. The first actual mission work among
the Piros of the Salinas began in 1629 and was prosecuted
rapidly, but before the Pueblo rebellion of 1680 Apache raids had
become so numerous that all of the villages of the Salinas region
and Senecu on the Rio Grande were abandoned. The Piro were not
invited to take part in the great rebellion and when Governor
Otermin retreated to El Paso nearly all of them joined him, while
the few who remained subse quently scattered. Those who
accompanied the governor were settled at Senecu del Sur and
Socorro del Sur, where their descendants became largely
Mexicanized.
Population.- The Piro populntion was estimated at 9,000 early in
the sixteentb century, but is non about 60. (See Tewa.)
Pueblo Indians. A general name for those Indians in the Southwest
who dwelt in stone buildings as opposed to the tribes living in
more fragile shelters, pueblo being the word for "town" or
"village" in Spanish. It is not a tribal or even a stock name,
since the Pueblos belonged to four distinct stocks. Following is
the classification of Pueblos made by F. W. Hodge (1910) except
that the Kiowa have since been connected with the Tanoans and a
few minor changes have been introduced:
Kiow-Tanoan linguistic stock:
Tewa Group:
Northern Division: Nambe, Tesuque, San Ildefonso, San
Juan, Santa Clara, Pojoaque (recently extinct), Hano.
Southern Division: Tano (practically extinct) .
Tiwa Group: Isleta, Isleta del Sur (Mexicanized), Sandia, Taos,
Picuris.
Jemez Group: Jemez, Pecos (extinct)
Piro Group: Senecu, Senecu del Sur (Mexicanized).
Keresan linguistic stook:
Eastern Group: San Felipe, Santa Ann, Sia, Cochiti, Santo
Domingo.
Western Group: Acoma, Laguna, and outlying villages.
Zuhian linguistic stock:
Zuffi Group: Zuni and its outlving villages.
Shoshonean linguistic stock, part of the Uto-Aztecan stock:
Hopi Group: Walpi, Sichomovi, Mishongnovi, Shipaulovi,
Shongopovi, Oraibi.
The Pueblo Indians in New Mexico are being considered at length
under the following heads: Jemez, Keresan Pueblos, Piro Pueblos,
Tewa Pueblos, Tiwa Pueblos, and Zuni; the Hopi are considered
under Arizona. (See also Colorado, Nevada, and Texas.)
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Pueblo Indians
have become famous from the fact that, unlike all of their
neighbors, they lived in communal stone houses and in stone
dwellings perched along the canyon walls; from their peculiar
customs and ceremonies, such as the Snake Dance; and from their
real and supposed connection with the builders of the stone ruins
with which their country and neighboring parts of the Southwest
abound. In recent years they have been subjects of interest to
artists and writers and an attempt has been made to base a style
of architecture upon the type of their dwellings. They are of
historic interest as occupants of one of the two sections of the
United States first colonized by Europeans.
Shuman. The Shuman lived at various times in or near the southern
and eastern borders of New Mexico. (See Texas.)
Tewa Pueblos. The name Tewa is from a Kercs uord meaning
"moccasins. " Also called:
Tu'-ba-na, Taos name.
Tu'-ven, Isleta and Sandia name.
Connections.- They constituted a major division of the Tanoan
linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.
Location.- Along the valley of the Rio Grande in the northern
part of Nen Mexico, except for one pueblo, Hano, in the Hopi
country, Arizona.
Subdivisions
They consisted of two main branches, the Northern Tewa, from near
Santa Fe to the mouth of the Rio Chama, including also Hano; and
the Southern Tewa or Tano, from Santa Fe to the neighborhood of
Golden, back from the Rio Grande.
Towns
Northern Tewa towns nnd villages still occupied:
Hano, the easternmost pueblo of Tusayan, Ariz.
Nambe, about 16 miles north of Santa Fe, on Nambe River, a
small tributary of the Rio Grande.
San Ildefonso, near the eastern bank of the Rio Grande,
about 18 miles northwest of Santa Fe.
San Juan, near the eastern bank of the Rio Grande 25 miles
northwest of Santa Fe.
Santa Clara, on the western bank of the Rio Grande, about 30
miles above Santa Fe.
Tesuque, 8 miles north of Santa Fe.
Towns and villages formerly occupied by the Northern Tewa:
Abechiu, at a place called Le Puente, on a bluff close to
the southern bank of Rio Chams, 3 miles southeast of the present
town of Abiquiu, Rio Arriba County.
Agawano, in the mountains about 7 miles east of the Rio
Grande, on Rio Santa Cruz.
Analco, at the place where there is now the so-called
"oldest house," adjacent to San Miguel Chapel, in Santa Fe.
Axol, location uncertain.
Camitria, in Rio Arriba County.
Chipiinuinge, on a small but high detached mesa between the
Canones and Polvadera Creek, 4 miles south of Chama and about 14
miles southwest of Abiquiu, Rio Arriba County.
Chipiwi, location uncertain.
Chupadero, location uncertain.
Cuyamunque, on Tesuque Creek, between Tesuque and Pojoaque,
about 15 miles northwest of Santa Fe.
Fejiu, at the site of the present Abiquiu on the Rio Chama,
Rio Arriba County.
Fesere, on a mesa west or south of the Rio Chama, near
Abiquiu, Rio Arriba County.
Homayo, on the west bank of Rio Ojo Caliente, a small
western tributary of the Rio Grande, in Rio Arriba County.
Howiri, at the Rito Colorado, about 10 miles west of the Hot
Springs, near Abiquiu, Rio Arriba County.
Ihnmba, on the south side of Pojoaque River, between
Pojoaque and San Ildefonso Pueblos.
Jacona, a short distance west of Nambe, on the south side of
Pojoaque River, Santa Fe County.
Junetre, in Rio Arriba County.
Kaayu, in the vicinity of the "Santuario" in the mountains
about 7 miles east of the Rio Grande, on Rio Santa Cruz, Santa Fe
County.
Keguayo, in the vicinity of the Chupaderos, a cluster of
springs in a mountain gorge, about 4 miles east of Nambe Pueblo.
Kuapooge, with Analco occupying the site of Santa Fe.
Kwengyauinge, on a conical hill about 15 feet high,
overlooking Chama River, at a point known as La Puenta, about 3
miles below Abiquiu, Rio Arriba County.
Luceros, partially Tewa.
Navahu, in the second valley south of the great pueblo and
cliff village of Puye, west of Santa Clara Pueblo, in the
Pajarito Park.
Navawi, between the Rito de 109 Frijoles and Santa Clara
Canyon, southwest of San Ildefonso.
Otowi, on a mesa about 5 miles west of the point where the
Rio Grande enters White Rock Canyon, between the Rito de los
Frijoles and Santa Clara Canyon, in the northeastern corner of
Sandoval County.
Perage, a few rods from the west bank of the Rio Grande,
about 1 mile west of San Ildefonso Pueblo.
Pininicangui, on a knoll in a valley about 2 miles south of
Puye and 3 miles south of Santa Clara Creek, on the Pajarito
Plateau, Sandoval County.
Pojiuuingge, at La Joya, about 10 miles north of San Juan
Pueblo.
Pojoaque, on a small eastern tributary of the Rio Grande,
about 18 miles northwest of Santa Fe.
Ponyinumbu, near the Mexican settlement of Santa Cruz, in
the northern part of Santa Fe County.
Ponyipakuen, near Ojo Caliente and El Rito, about the
boundary of Taos and Rio Arriba Counties.
Poseuingge, at the Rito Colorado, about 10 miles west of the
hot springs near Abiquiu.
Potzuye, on a mesa west of the Rio Grande in northern New
Mexico, between San Ildefonso Pueblo on the north and the Rito de
los Frijoles on the south.
Pueblito, opposite San Juan Pueblo, on the west bank of the
Rio Grande in Rio Arriba County.
Pueblo Quemado (or Tano), 6 miles southwest of Santa Fe.
Puye, on a mesa about 10 miles west of the Rio Grande and a
mile south of Santa Clara Canyon, near the intersection of the
boundaries of Rio Arribs, Sandoval, and Santa Fe Counties.
Sajiuwingge, at La Joya, about 10 miles north of San Juan
Pueblo, Rio Arriba County.
Sakeyu on a mesa west of the Rio Grande in northern New
Mexico, between San Ildefonso Pueblo and Rito de los Frijoles.
Sandia, not the Tiwa pueblo of that name.
Santa Cruz, east of the Rio Grande, 30 miles northwest of
Santa Fe, at the site of the present town of that name.
Sepawi, in the valley of El Rito Creek, on the heights above
the Ojo Caliente of Joseph, and 5 miles from the Mexican
settlement of El Rito.
Shufina, on a castle-like mesa of tufa northwest of Puye and
separated from it by Santa Clara Canyon.
Teeuinge, on top of the mesa on the south side of Rio Chama,
about 1/4 mile from the river and an equal distance below the
mouth of Rio Oso, in Rio Arriba County.
Tejeuingge Ouiping, on the southern slope of the hills on
which stands the present pueblo of San Juan, on the Rio Grande.
Tobhipangge, 8 miles northeast of the present Nambe Pueblo.
Triapf, location uncertain.
Triaque, location uncertain.
Troomaxiaquino, in Rio Arriba County.
Tsankawi, on a lofty mesa between the Rito de los Frijoles
on the south and Los Alamos Canyon on the north, about 5 miles
west of the Rio Grande.
Tsawarii, at or near the present hamlet of La Puebla, or
Pueblito, a few miles above the town of Santa Cruz, in
southeastern Rio Arriba County.
Tseweige, location uncertain.
Tshirege, on the northern edge of the Mesa del Pajarito
about 6 miles west of the Rio Grande and 7 miles south of San
Ildefonso Pueblo.
Yugeuingge, on the west bank of the Rio Grande, opposite the
present pueblo of San Juan, near the site of the village of
Chamita.
The following extinct villages are either Tewa or Tano:
Chiuma, location uncertain.
Guia, on the Rio Grande in the vicinity of Albuquerque.
Guika, on the Rio Grande near Albuquerque.
Penas Negras, on an eminence west of Pecos Road, near the
edge of a forest, 8 miles south-southeast of Santa Fe.
The following were inhabited by either the Tiwa or the Tewa:
Axoytre, perhaps the same as Axol above?
Camitre, perhaps the same as Camitria above?
Paniete, location uncertain.
Piamato, location uncertain.
Quiotraco, probably in Rio Arriba County.
So far as known the following pueblos belonged to the Southern
Tawa:
Cienega (also contained Keresan Indians), in the valley of
Rio Santa Fe, 12 miles southwest of Santa Fe.
Dyapige, southeast of Lamy, "some distance in the
mountains."
Galisteo, 1 1/2 miles southeast of the present hamlet of the
name and about 22 miles south of Santa Fe.
Guika (or Tewa), on the Rio Grande near Albuquerque.
Kayepu, about 5 miles south of Galisteo, Santa Fe County.
Kipana, south of the hamlet of Tejon, in Sandoval County.
Kuakaa, on the south bank of Arroyo Hondo, 5 miles south of
Santa Fe.
Ojana, south of the hamlet of Tejon, Sandoval County.
Paako, south of the mining camp of San Pedro, Santa Fe
County.
Pueblo Blanco, on the west rim of the Medano, or great
sand-flow, east of the Rio Grande.
Pueblo Colorado, on the south border of the Galisteo plain.
Pueblo de los Silos, in the Galisteo Basin, between the
Keresan pueblos of the Rio Grande and Pecos.
Pueblo Largo, about 5 miles south of Galisteo.
Pueblo Quemado (or Tewa), 6 miles southwest of Santa Fe.
Puerto (or Keresan).
San Cristobal, between Galisteo and Pecos.
San Lazaro, 12 miles southwest of the present Lamy, on the
south bank of the Arroyo del Chorro, Santa Fe County.
San Marcos, 18 miles south-southwest of Santa Fe.
Sempoai, near Golden, Santa Fe County.
She, about 5 miles south of Galisteo in Santa Fe County.
Tuerto, near the present Golden City, Santa Fe County.
Tungge, on a bare slope near the banks of a stream called in
the mountains farther south Rio de San Pedro; lower down, Uha de
Gato; and in the vicinity of the ruins Arroyo del Tunque, at the
northeastern extremity of the Sandia Mountains, in Sandoval
County.
Tzemantuo, about 5 miles south of Galisteo, Santa Fe County.
Tzenatay, opposite the little settlement of La Bajada, on
the declivity sloping from the west toward the bed of Santa Fe
Creek, 6 miles east of the Rio Grande and 20 miles southwest of
Santa Fe.
Uapige, east of Lamy Station on the Atchison, Topeka, and
Santa Fe Railway, some distance in the mountains.
History.- When Coronado passed through the southern end of Tewa
territory in 1540, he found it had been nearly depopulated by the
Teya, a warlike Plains tribe, perhaps Apache, about 16 years
before. The Tewa were next visited by Espejo. In 1630 there were
but five Southern Tewa towns remaining and those were entirely
broken up during the Pueblo revolts of 1680-96, most of the
Indians removing to the Hopi in Arizona, after 1694. The greater
part of the remainder were destroyed by smallpox early in the
nineteenth century, though there are still a few descendants of
this group living in the other pueblos along the Rio Grande,
particularly Santo Domingo. The history of the Northern Tewa was
similar to that of the Southern but they suffered much less and
remain a considerable body at the present day though with a
stationary population. The Pueblo of Hano was established among
the Hopi as a result of the rebellion of 1680-92.
Populations.- The population of the Northern Tewa is given as
follows: In 1680, 2,200; in 1760, 1,908; in 1790-93, 980; in
1805, 929; in 1850, 2,025; in 1860, 1,161; in 1871, 979, in
1901-05, 1,200; in 1910, 968. In 1930 the entire Tanoan stock
numbered 3,412. In 1937, 1,708 were returned from the Tewa
excluding the Hano, which were enumerated with the Hopi.
In 1630 Benavides estimated the Southern Tewa population at
4,000; in 1680 Galisteo, probably including San Cristobal, had an
estimated population of 800 and San Marcos of 600. No later
separate figures are available.
Connection in which they have become noted.- Tano, the
alternative name of the Southern Tewa, has been used as a
designation of the stock to which the entire group -- Tewa, Tiwa,
Piro, Pecos, and Jemez -- belong, a stock now merged with the
Kiowa-Tanoan.
Tiwa Pueblos. The name Tiwa is from Ti'wan, pl. Tiwesh', their
own name. Also spelled Tebas, Tigua, Tiguex, Tihuas, Chiguas.
Also called:
E-nagh-magh, a name given by Lane (in Schoolcraft, 1851-57)
to the language of "Taos, Picuris, Tesuqua, Sandia," etc.
Connection.- The Tiwa Pueblos are a division of the Tanoan
linguistic family, itself a part of the Kiowa-Tanoan stock.
Location and Subdivisions.- The Tiwa Pueblos formed three
geographic divisions, one occupying Taos and Picuris (the most
northerly of the New Mexican Pueblos), on the upper waters of the
Rio Grande; another inhabiting Sandia and Isleta, north and south
of Albuquerque respectively; and the third living in the pueblos
of Isleta del Sur and Senecu del Sur, near El Paso, Tex., in
Texas and Chihuahua, Mexico, respectively.
Towns and Villages
(As far as known)
Alameda, on the east side of the Rio Grande about 10 miles above
Albuquerque.
Bejuftuuy, near the southern limit of the Tiwa habitat on the Rio
Grande, at the present Los Lunas.
Carfaray, supposed to have been east of the Rio Grande beyond the
saline lakes.
Chilili, on the west side of the Arroyo de Chilili, about 30
miles southeast of Albuquerque.
Isleta, on the west bank of the Rio Grande about 12 miles south
of Albuquerque.
Isleta del Sur, on the northeast side of the Rio Grande, a short
distance below El Paso, Tex.
Kuaua, north of the present bridge across the Rio Grande above
Bernalillo.
Lentes, on the west bank of the Rio Grande near Los Lunas.
Manzano, near the present village so called, 6 miles northwest of
Quarai and about 25 miles east of the Rio Grande.
Mojualuna, in the mountains above the present Taos Pueblo.
Nabatutuei, location unknown.
Nachurituei, location unknown.
Pahquetooai, location unknown.
Picuris, inhabited, about 40 miles north of Santa Fe.
Puaray, on a gravelly bluff overlooking the Rio Grande in front
of the southern portion of the town of Bernalillo.
Puretuay, on the summit of the round mesa of Shiemtuai, or Mesa
de las Padillas, 3 miles north of Isleta.
Quarai, about 30 miles straight east of the Rio Grande, in the
eastern part of Valencia County.
San Antonio, east of the present settlement of the same name,
about the center of the Sierra de Gallego, or Sierra de Carnue,
between San Pedro and Chilili, east of the Rio Grande.
Sandia, inhabited, on the east bank of the Rio Grande, 12 miles
north of Albuquerque.
Santiago, probably about 12 1/2 miles above Bernalillo, on the
Mesa del Cangelon.
Senecu del Sur, including Piro Indians, on the southeastern bank
of the Rio Grande, a few miles below El Paso, in Chihuahua,
Mexico.
Shumnac, east of the Rio Grande in the vicinity of the present
Mexican settlements of Chilili, Tajique, and Manzano.
Tajique, about 30 miles northeast of Belen, close to the present
settlement of the same name, on the southern bank of the Arroyo
de Tajique.
Taos, inhabited, on both sides of Taos River, an eastern
tributary of the Rio Grande, in Taos County.
The following pueblos now extinct were probably also Tiwa:
Locations entirely unknown: Locations known:
Acacafui. Ranchos, about 3 miles from Taos
Guayotrf. Pueblo.
Henicohio. Shinana, on the Rio Grande near
Leyvia. Albuquerque.
Paniete. Tanques, also on the Rio Grande near
Poxen. Albuquerque.
Trimati. Torreon, at the modern town of the
Tuchiamas. same name, about 28 miles east of
Vareato Belen.
History.- The first two Tiwa divisions above mentioned occupied
the same positions when Coronado encountered the Tiwa in
1640-42. Relations between his followers and the Indians soon
became hostile and resulted in the capture of two pueblos by his
army. In 1581 three missionaries were sent to the Tiwa under an
escort but all were killed as soon as the escort was withdrawn.
In 1583 Espejo approached Puaray, which Coronado had attacked,
but the Indians fled. Castano de Sosa visited the Tiwa in 1598
and Onate in 1598. Missionary work was begun among them early in
the seventeenth century, and the Indians were withdrawn
progressively until only four pueblos were occupied by them at
the time of the great rebellion of 1680, in which they took part.
In 1681 Governor Otermin stormed Isleta and captured 500 Indians
most of whom he settled near El Paso. Part of the Isleta fled to
the Hopi country and remained there until 1709 or 1718, when the
people of Isleta returned and reestablished their town. The
Sandia Indians, however, remained away until 1742, when they were
brought back by some missionaries and settled in a new pueblo
near their former one. Since then there have been few
disturbances of importance, but the population until very lately
slowly declined.
Population.- In 1680 there were said to be 12,200 Tiwa; in 1760,
1,428 were reported; in 1790-93, 1,486; in 1805, 1,491; in 1850,
1,575; in 1860, 1,163; in 1871, 1,478; in 1901-5, 1,613; in 1910,
1,650; in 1937, 2,122. (See Tewa Pueblos.)
Ute. The Ute were close to the northern border of New Mexico,
extending across it at times and frequently raiding the tribes of
the region and the later white settlements. (See Utah.)
Zuni. A Spanish adaptation of the Keresan Sunyyitsi, or Su'nyitsa
of unknown meaning. Also spelled Juni. Synonyms are:
A'shiwi, own name, signifying "the flesh."
Cibola, early Spanish rendering of A'swiwi.
La Purfsima de Zuni, mission name.
Nai-te'-zi, Navaho name.
Narsh-tiz-a, Apache name.
Nashtezhe, Navaho name.
Nuestra Seffora de Guadalupe de Zuni, mission name.
Saraf, Isleta and Sandia name of the pueblo; Saran, Isleta
name of the people.
Saray, Tiwa name of the pueblo.
Sa'u'u, Havasupai name.
Siete Ciudades de Gibola, or Seven Cities of Cibola.
Su'nyitsa, Santa Ana name of the pueblo.
Sunyitsi, Laguna name.
Taa Ashiwani, sacred name of tribe, signifying "corn
peoples."
Xaray, the Tiwa name.
Ze-gar-kin-a, given as Apache name.
Connections.- The Zuni constitute the Zunian linguistic stock.
Location.- On the north bank of upper Zuni River, Valencia
County.
Villages
Halona (extinct), on both sides of Zuni River, on and opposite
the site of Zuni Pueblo.
Hampasawan (extinct), 6 miles west of Zuni Pueblo.
Hawikuh (extinct), about 15 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo, near
the summer village of Ojo Caliente.
Heshokta (extinct), on a mesa about 5 miles northwest of Zuni
Pueblo.
Heshota Ayathltona (extinct), on the summit of Taaiyalana, or
Seed Mountain, commonly called Thunder Mountain, about 4 miles
southeast of Zuni Pueblo.
Heshota Hluptsina (extinct), between the "gateway" and the summer
village of Pescado, 7 miles east of Zuni Pueblo.
Heshota Imkoskwin (extinct), near Tanryakwin, or Nutria.
Heshotapathltale, or Kintyel, on Leroux Wash, about 23 miles
north of Navaho Station, on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe
Railway, Ariz.
Heshota Uhla (extinct), at the base of a mesa on Zuni River,
about 5 miles west of the summer village of Ojo Pescado, or
Heshotatsina.
Kechipauan (extinct), on a mesa east of Ojo Caliente, or
Kyapkwainakwin, 15 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo.
Kiakima (extinct), at the southwestern base of Thunder Mountain,
4 miles southeast of Zuni Pueblo.
Kwakina (extinct), 7 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo.
Kwnkinawan (extinct), south-southeast of Thunder Mountain, which
lies 4 miles east of Zuni Pueblo.
Matsaki (extinct), near the northwestern base of Thunder Mountain
and 3 miles east of Zuni Pueblo.
Nutria, at the headwaters of an upper branch of Zuni River, about
23 miles northeast of Zuni Pueblo.
Ojo Caliente, about 14 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo.
Pescado, about 15 miles east of Zuni Pueblo.
Pinawan (extinct), about 1 1/2 miles southwest of Zuni Pueblo, on
the road to Ojo Caliente.
Shopakin (extinct), 5 miles north of Zuni Pueblo.
Wimian (extinct), 11 miles north of Zuni Pueblo.
History.- According to Cushing (1896), the Zuni are descended
from two peoples, one of whom came originally from the north and
was later joined by the second, from the west or southwest (from
the country of the lower Colorado), who resembled the Yuman and
Piman peoples in culture. Although indefinite rumors of an Indian
province in the far north, containing seven cities, were afloat
in Mexico soon after its conquest, the first definite information
regarding the Zuni was supplied by Fray Marcos de Niza, who set
out in 1539, with a Barbary Negro named Estevanico as guide, to
explore the regions of the northwest. In the present Arizona he
learned that Estevanico who, together with some of his Indian
companions, had been sent on ahead, had been killed by the
natives of "Cibola," or Zuni. After approaching within sight of
one of the Zuni pueblos, Fray Marcos returned to Mexico with such
glowing accounts of the "Kingdom of Cibola" that the expedition
of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was fitted out the next year.
The first Zuni Indians were encountered near the mouth of Zuni
River, and the Spaniards later carried the Zuni pueblo of Hawikuh
by storm, but it was discovered that the Indians had already
moved their women and children, together with the greater part of
their property, to their stronghold on Taaiyalone Mesa. Thither
the men also escaped. The invaders u ere bitterly disappointed in
respect to the riches of the country, and, after the arrival of
the main part of the army, they removed to the Rio Grande to go
into winter quarters. Later, Coronado returned and subjugated the
Zuni.
In 1580 the Zuni were visited by Francisco Sanchez
Chamuscado, and in 1583 by Antonio de Espejo, the first to call
them by the name they commonly bear. By this time one of the
seven original pueblos had been abandoned. In 1698, the Zuni were
visited by Juan de Onate, the colonizer of New Mexico. The first
Zuni mission was established by the Franciscans at Hawikuh in
1629. In 1632 the Zuni murdered the missionaries and again fled
to Taaiyalone Mesa, where they remained until 1635. On August 7,
1670, the Apache or Navaho raided Hawikuh, killed the missionary,
and burned the church. The mission was not reestablished, and it
is possible that the village itself was not rebuilt. In 1680 the
Zuni occupied but three villages, excluding Hawikuh, the central
mission being at Halona, on the site of the present Zuni pueblo.
They took part in the great rebellion of 1680 and fled to
Taaiyalone Mesa, where they remained until their reconquest by
Vargas in 1692. From this time on the people were concentrated in
the single village now known as Zuni, and a church was erected
there in 1699. In 1703 they killed the missionary and again fled
to their stronghold, returning in 1705. A garrison was maintained
at Zuni for some years after this, and there were troubles with
the Hopi, which were finally composed in 1713. The mission
continued well into the nineteenth century, but the church was
visited only occasionally by priests and gradually fell into
ruins. In recent years the United States Government has built
extensive irrigation works and established a large school, where
the younger generation are being educated in the ways of
civilization.
Population.- In 1630 the Zuni population was estimated at 10,000,
probably much too high a figure; and in 1680, at 2,500. In 1760
it was given as 664; in 1788, 1,617; in 1797-98, 2,716; in 1805,
1,470; in 1871, 1,530; in 1889, 1,547; in 1910, 1,667; in 1923,
1,911; in 1930, 1,749; in 1937, 2,080.
Connections in which they have become noted.- The Zuni have
become widely known (1) from their association with the "Kingdom
of Cibola"; (2) from the size of the pueblo and the unique
character of the language spoken there; and (3) from the close
study made of them by Cushing, Mrs. Stevenson, Kroeber, and
others. The name Zuni is borne by a detached range of mountains
in the northwestern part of New Mexico. Besides Zuni post village
in McKinley County, N. Mex., there is a place named Zuni in Isle
of Wight County, Va.
New York
The Indian Tribes of North America by John R. Swanton
Delaware. Bands of two of the main divisions of the Delaware
Indians, thc Munsee and Unami, extended into parts of New York
State, including the island of Manhattan. (See New Jersey.)
Erie. The Erie occupied parts of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus
Counties. (See Ohio.)
Iroquois. From Algonkin Irinakhoiw, "real adders," with the
French suffix -ois. Also called:
Ongwanoansiofini', their own name, meaning "We are of the
extended lodge," whence comes the popular designation, "People of
the longhouse."
Canton Indians.
Confederate Indians.
Five Nations, from the five constituent tribes.
Mat-che-naw-to-waig, Ottawa name, meaning "bad snakes."
Mingwe, Delaware name.
Nadowa, name given by the northwestern Algonquians and
meaning "adders."
Six Nations, name given after the Tuscarora had joined
them.
Connections.- The Iroquois belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic
stock, their nearest relations being the Tuscarora, Neutral
Nation, Huron, Erie, and Susquehanna.
Location.- In the upper and central part of the Mohawk Valley and
the lake region of central New York. After obtaining guns from
the Dutch, the Iroquois acquired a dominating influence among the
Indians from Maine to the Mississippi and between the Ottawa and
Cumberland Rivers. (See also Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Canada.)
Subdivision
There were five tribes, as follows: Cayuga, about Cayuga Lake;
Mohawk, in the upper valley of Mohawk River; Oneida, about Oneida
Lake; Onondaga, in Onondaga County and the neighboring section;
Seneca, between Luke Seneca and Genesee River. Later there were
added to these, for thc most part not on terms of perfect
equality, the Tuscarora from North Carolina, some Delaware,
Tutelo, Saponi, Nanticoke, Conoy, New England Indians, and other
fragments of tribes, besides entire towns from the Huron, Erie,
Andaste, and other conquered peoples.
Villages
Cayuga:
Chondote, on the east side of Cayuga Lake a few miles
south of Cayuga.
Gandasetaigon, near Port Hope, Ont.
Ganogeh, at Canoga.
Gayagaanhe, near the east shore of Cayuga Lake 3 1/2
miles south of Union Springs.
Gewauga, at Union Springs, town of Springport.
Goiogouen, on the east side of Cayuga Lake on Great Gully
Brook, about 4 miles south of the present Union Springs, and 4
leagues from the town of Tiohero.
Kawauka, (?), Kente, on Quinte Bay, Lake Ontario, Ont.
Neodakheat, at Ithaca.
Oneniote, at Oneida on Cayuga Lake.
Onnontare, probably east of Seneca River and at Bluff
Point, near Fox Ridge, Cayuga County.
Owego, on the right bank of Owego Creek, about 2 miles
from the Susquehanna River, in Tioga County.
Skannayutenate, on the west side of Cayuga Lake,
northeast of Canoga, Seneca County.
Tiohero, 4 leagues from Goiogouen.
Mohawk:
Canajoharie, on the east bank of Otsquago Creek nearly
opposite Fort Plain.
Canastigaone, on the north side of Mohawk River just
above Cohoes Falls.
Canienga, near the bank of Mohawk River.
Caughnanaga, on Mohawk River near the site of
Auriesville.
Chuchtononeda, on tke south side of Mohawk River- named
from a band.
Kanagaro, on the north side of Mohawk River in Montgomery
County or Herkimer County.
Kowogoconnughariegugharie, (?).
Nowadaga, at Danube, Herkimer County.
Onoalagona, at Schenectady.
Osquake, at Fort Plain and on Osquake Creek, Montgomery
County.
Saratoga, about Saratoga and Stillwater.
Schaunactada, at and south of Albany.
Schoharie, near Schoharie.
Teatontaloga, on the north side of Mohawk River and
probably near the mouth of Schoharie Creek in Montgomery County.
Tewanondadon, in the peninsula formed by the outlet of
Otsego Lake and Shenivas Creek.
Oneida:
Awegen.
Cahunghage, on the south side of Oneida Lake.
Canowdowsa, near junction of Lackawanna and Susquehanns
Rivers.
Chittenango, on Chittenango Creek, Madison County.
Cowassalon, on creek of same name in Madison County.
Ganadoga, near Oneida Castle, Oneida County.
Hostayuntwa, at Camden.
Oneida, name of several of the main towns of the tribe,
in the valleys of Oneida Creek and Upper Oriskany Creek.
Opolopong, on the east branch of Susquehannn, about 30
miles above Shamokin and 10 miles below Wyoming, Pa.
Oriska, near Oriskany in Oneida County.
Ossewingo, a few miles above Chenango, Broome County.
Ostogeron, probably above Toskokogie on the Chenango
River.
Schoherage, probably on the west branch of Chenango River
(?) below Tuskokogie.
Sevege, a short distance above Owego on the west side of
the east branch of the Susquehanna River.
Solocka, about 60 miles above Shamokin, on a creek
issuing from the Great Swamp north of the Cashuetunk Mountains,
Pa.
Tegasoke, on Fish Creek in Oneida County.
Teseroken, (?).
Teiosweken, (?).
Tkanetota, (?).
Onondaga:
Ahaouet, (?).
Deseroken, traditional.
Gadoquat, at Brewerton, Onondaga County
Gannentaha, a mission on Onondaga Lake about 5 leagues
from Onondaga.
Gistwiahna, at Onondaga Valley.
Onondaga, the principal town of the tribe, which occupied
several distinct sites, the earliest known probsbly 2 miles west
of Cazenovia and east of West Limestone Greek, Madison County.
Onondaghara, on Ononduga River 3 miles east of Onondaga
Hollow.
Onondahgegahgeh, west of Lower Ebenezer, Erie County.
Onontatacet, on Seneca River.
Otiahanague, at the mouth of Salmon River, Oswego County.
Teionontatases, (?).
Tgasunto, (?).
Touenho, south of Brewerton, at the west end of Lake
Oneida.
Tueadasso, near Jamesville.
Seneca:
Buckaloon, on the north side of Allegheny River near the
present Irvine, Warren County, Pa.
Ganadasaga, near Geneva.
Canandaigua, near Canandaigua.
Caneadea, at Caneadea.
Catherine's Town, near Catherine.
Cattaraugus, on a branch of Cattaraugus Creek.
Chemung, probably near Chemung.
Cheronderoga, (?).
Chinklacamoose, probably mainly Delaware but frequented
by Seneca, on the site of Clearfield, Pa. Chinoshahgeh, near
Victor.
Condawhaw, at North Hector.
Connewango, 2 villages, one at Warren, Pa., and one on
the left bank of Allegheny River above the site of Tionesta, Pa.
Dayoitgao, on Genesee River near Fort Morris.
Deonundagae, on Livingston River west of Genesee River.
Deyodeshot, about 2 miles southeast of East Avon, on the
site of Keinthe.
Deyohnegano, 2 villages: one near Caledonia; one on
Allegheny Reservation, Cattaraugus County.
Deyonongdadagana, on the west bank of Genesee River near
Cuylerville.
Dyosyowan, on Buffalo Creek, Erie County, Pa.
Gaandowanang, on Genesee River near Cuylerville.
Gadaho, at Castle.
Gahato, probably Seneca, in Chemung County.
Gahayanduk, location unknown.
Ganagweh, near Palmyra.
Ganawagus, on Genesee River near Avon.
Ganeasos, (?).
Ganedontwan, at Moscow.
Ganos, at Cuba, Allegany County.
Ganosgagong, at Dansville.
Gaonsagaon, (?).
Gaousge. probably Seneca, on Niagara River.
Gaskosada, on Cayuga Creek west of Lancaster.
Gathtsegwaro hare, (?).
Geneseo, near Geneseo.
Gistaquat, (?).
Goshgoshunk, mainly Munsee and Unami, 3 villages on
Allegheny River in the upper part of Venango County, Pa.
Hickorytown, mainly Munsee and Unami, probably about East
Hickory or West Hickory, Forest County, Pa.
Honeoye, on Honeoye Creek, near Honeoye Lake.
Joneadih, on Allegheny River nearly opposite Salamanca.
Kanagaro, 2 villages, one on Boughton Hill, directly
south of Victor, N. Y.; one with several different locations from
1 1/2 to 4 miles south from the first, and southeast from Victor,
on the east side of Mud Creek.
Kanaghsaws, about 1 miie northeast of Conesus Center.
Kannassarago, between Oneida and Onondaga.
Kashong, on Kashong Creek at its entrance into Lake
Seneca.
Kaskonchiagon, (?).
Kaygen, on the south bank of Chemung River below Kanestio
River.
Keinthe, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, later
transferred to Bay of Quinte.
Lawunkhannek, mainly Delaware, on Allegheny River above
Franklin, Venango County, Pa.
Mahusquechikoken, with Munsee and other tribes, on
Allegheny River about 20 miles above Venango, Pa.
Middle Town, 3 miles above the site of Chemung.
New Chemung, at or near the site of Chemung.
Newtown, on Chemung River near Elmira.
Oatka, at Scottsville, on the west bank of Genesee River.
Old Chemung, about 3 miles below New Ghemung.
Onnahee, on the east side of Fall Brook, in the western
part of lot 20, town of Hopewell, Ontario County.
Onoghsadago, near Conewango (?).
Onondarka, north of Karaghyadirha on Guy Johnson's map of
1771.
Owaiski, near Wiscoy on the west bank of Genesee River,
Allegheny County.
Sheshequin, about 6 miles below Tioga Point, Bradford
County, Pa.
Skahasegao, at Lima, Livingston County.
Skoiyase, at Waterloo.
Sonojowauga, at Mount Morris, Livingston County.
Tekisedaneyout, in Erie County.
Tioniongarunte, (7).
Tonawanda, on Tonawanda Creek, Niagara County.
Totiakton, on Honeoye outlet not far from Honeoye Falls
in Monroe County.
Vennngo, at Franklin, at the mouth of French Creek,
Venango County, Pa.
Yorkjough, about 12 miles from Honeoye and 6 from New
Genesee, probably in Livingston County.
Yoroonwago, on upper Allegheny River near the present
Corydon, Warren County, Pa.
Iroquoinan villages of unspecified tribes:
Adjouquay, (?).
Anpuaqun, (?).
Aratumquat, (?).
Cahunghage, on the south side of Oneida Lake.
Caughnawaga, on Sault St. Louis, Quebec Province, Canada.
Chemegaide, (?).
Churamuk, on the east side of Susquehanna River, 18 miles
above Owego.
Codocararen, (?).
Cokanuk, (?).
Conaquanosshan, (?).
Conihunta, 14 miles below Unadilla.
Connosomothdian, (?).
Conoytown, of mixed Conoy and Iroquois, on Susquehanna
River between Bainbridge and Sunbury, Pa.
Coreorgonel, of mixed Tutelo and Iroquois, on the west
side of Cayuga Lake inlet and on the border of the Great Swamp 3
miles from the south end of Cayuga Lake.
Cowawago, (?).
Cussewago, principally Seneca, on the site of the present
Waterford, Erie County, Pa.
Ganadoga, near Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Ganagarahhare, at Venango, Crawford County, Pa.
Ganeraske, at the mouth of Trent River, Ontario, Canada.
Ganneious, at the site of Napanee, Ontario, Ganada.
Glasswanoge, (?).
Indian Point, at Lisbon, N. Y.
Janundat, on Sandusky Bay, Erie County, Ohio.
Jedakne, Iroquois or Delaware, on the west branch of
Susquehanna River, probably at Dewart, Northumberland County, Pa.
Johnstown, location not given.
Jonondes, location unknown.
Juaniata, on Duncan Island in Susquehanna River, near the
mouth of the Juniata.
Juraken, 2 villages, one on the right bank of the
Susquehanna at Sunbury, Pa., the other on the left bank of the
east branch of the Susquehanna.
Kahendohon, location unknown.
Kannghsaws, about 1 mile northwest of Conesus Center,
N. Y.
Kannawalohalla, at Elmira, N. Y.
Kanesadageh, a town of the Turtle Clan mentioned in the
Iroquois Book of Rites
Karaken, location unknown.
Karhationni, location unknown.
Karhawenradonh, location unknown.
Kayehkwarageh, location unknown.
Kickenapawling, mixed Delaware (?) and Iroquois, 5 miles
north of the present Stoyestown, Pa., at the fork of Quemahoning
and Stony Creeks.
Kittanning, mixed Iroquois, Delaware, and Caughnawaga,
about the present Kittanning, Armstrong County, Pa.
Kuskuski, mixed Delaware and Iroquois, on Beaver Creek,
near Newcastle, Pa.
La Montagne, on a hill on Montreal Island, Quebec
Province, Canada.
La Prairie, at La Prairie, Quebec, Canada.
Logstown, Shawnee, Delaware, and Iroquois, on the right
bank of the Ohio River, 14 miles below Pittsburgh.
Loyalhannon, on Loyalhanna Greek, Pa.
Manckatawangum, near Barton, Bradford County, Pa.
Matchasaung, on the left bank of the east branch of the
Susquehanna River, about 13 miles above Wyoming, Pa.
Mingo Town, near Steubenville, Ohio.
Mohanet, probably Iroquois, on the east branch of the
Susquehanna River, Pa.
Nescopeck, mixed Iroquois, Shawnee, and Delanare,
formerly at the mouth of Nescopeck River, Luzerne County, Pa.
Newtown, 4 towns: one, probablv of the Seneca, on Chemung
River near Elmira, N. Y.; one, probably of Iroquois and Delaware,
on the north bank of Licking River, near Zanesville, Ohio; one,
probably of Iroquois and Delaware, on Muskingum River near
Newtown, Ohio; and one, probably of Iroquois and Delaware, on the
west side of Wills Creek, near Cambridge, Ohio.
Newtychanning, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River
and the north side of Sugar Creek, near North Towanda, Pa.
Ohrekionni, (?).
Oka, mixed Iroquois, Nipissing and Algonkin, on Lake of
the Two Mountains, near Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Onaweron, location unknown.
Onkwe Iyede, location unknown.
Opolopong, on the east branch of the Susquehanna River
about 30 miles above Shamokin and 10 miles below Wyoming, Pa.
Oskanwaserenhon, location unknown.
Ostonwackin, Delaware and Iroquois, at the mouth of
Loyalstock Creek on the west branch of the Susquehanna River, at
Montoursville, Pa.
Oswegatchie, at Ogdensburg, N. Y.
Otsiningo, on Chenango River, Broome County, N. Y.
Otskwirakeron, location unknown.
Ousagwentera, "beyond Fort Frontenac."
Pluggy's Town, a bfmd of marauding Indians, chieffy
Mingo, at Delaware, Ohio.
Runonvea, near Big Flats, Chemung County, N. Y.
Saint Regis, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence River
at the international boundary and on both sides.
Sault au Recollet, near the mouth of the Ottawa River,
Two Mountains County, Quebec, Canada.
Sawcunk, mixed Delaware, Shawnee, and Mingo, on the north
bank of the Ohio River near the mouth of Beaver Creek and the
present town of Beaver, Pa.
Schohorage, on the west bank of the Susquehanna River, a
short distance above the Indian town of Oquaga, Pa.
Sconassi, on the west side of the Susquehanna River below
the west branch, probably in Union County, Pa.
Scoutash's Town, Mingo or Shawnee, near Lewistown, Logan
County, Ohio.
Seneca Town, Mingo, on the east side of Sandusky River in
Seneca County, Ohio.
Sevege, a short distance above Owego on the west side of
the east brsnch of Susquehanna River, N. Y.
Sewickley, a Shawnee town occupied in later years by a
few Mingo and Delaware, on the north side of Allegheny River
about 12 miles above Pittsburgh, near Springdale, Pa.
Shamokin, Delaware, Shawnee, and Iroquois, a short
distance from the forks of the Susquehanna and on the northeast
branch.
Shenango, 3 towns: one, on the north bank of the Ohio
River a short distance below the present Economy, Pa.; one, at
the junction of the Conewango and Allegheny Rivers; and one, some
distance up the Big Beaver nenr Kuskuski (see above).
Sheshequin, Iroquois and Delaware, about 8 miles below
Tioga Point, Pa.
Sittawingo, in Armstrong County, Pa.
Skenandowa, at Vernon Center, Oneida County, Pa.
Solocka, about 60 miles above Shamokin on a creek issuing
from the Great Swamp north of the Cashuetunk Mountains, Pa.
Swahadowri, (?).
Taiaiagon, near Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Tioga, at Athens, Pa.
Tohoguses Town, at junction of Plum and Crooked Creeks,
Armstrong County, Pa.
Tonihata, on an island in the St. Lawrence River supposed
to be Grenadier Island Leeds County, Ontario, Canada.
Tullihas, mixed Delaware, Mahican, and Caughnawaga, on
the west branch of the Muskingum River, Ohio, above the forks.
Tuskokogie, just above Schoherage (q. v.) on Chenango
River (?).
Unadilla, near Unadilla, Otsego County.
Wakerhon, (?).
Wauteghe, on upper Susquehanna Rivcr between Teatontaloga
and Oquaga.
Youcham, (?).
History.- In Cartier's time the five Iroquois tribes seem to have
been independcnt and in a state of constant mutual warfare. At a
later period, not before 1570 according to Hewitt (1907), they
were induced by two remarkable men, Dekanawida and Hiawatha, to
form a federal union. While the immediate object of the league
was to bring about peace between these and other neighboring
tribes, the strength which the federal body acquired aod the fact
that they were soon equipped with guns by the Dutch at Albany
incited them to undertake extensive wars and to build up a rude
sort of empire.
The related Tuscarora of North Carolina joined them in
successive migrations, the greater part between 1712 and 1722,
and the remainder in 1802. In the French-English wars they took
the part of the English and were a very considerable factor in
their final victory. Later all but the Oneida and part of the
Tuscarora sided against the American colonists and as a result
their principal towns were laid waste by Sullivan in 1779. The
Mohawk and Cayuga, with other Iroquoian tribes in the British
interest, were given a reservation on Grand River, Ontario. The
remainder received reservations in New York except the Oneida,
who were settled near Green Bay, Wis. The so-called Seneca of
Oklahoma consist of remnants from all of the Iroquois tribes, the
Conestoga, Hurons, and perhaps others, which Hewitt (in. Hodge,
1910) thinks were gathered around the Erie and perhaps the
Conestoga as a nucleus.
Population.- In 1600 the Iroquois are estimated by Mooney (1928)
to have numbered 5,500; in 1677 and 1685 their numbers were
placed at about 16,000; in 1689 they were estimated at about
12,850; in 1774, 10,000 to 12,500; in 1904 they numbered about
16,100, of whom 10,418 were in Canada; in 1923 there were 8,696
in the United States and 11,355 in Canada; total, 20,051. By the
census of 1910 there were reported in the United States 2,907
Seneca, 2,436 Oneida, 365 Onondaga, 368 Mohawk, 81 Cayuga, 1,219
St. Regis, and 61 unspecified, a total of 7,437, besides 400
Tuscarora. In 1930 the figure, including Tuscarora, was 6,866. In
1937, 3,241 Oncida were living in Wisconsin and 732 "Seneca" in
Oklahoma.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The group of tribes
known as the Iroquois is famous from the fact that it had
attained the highest form of governmental organization reached by
any people north of the valley of Mexico. It is also noted,
largely in consequence of the above fact, for the dominating
position to which it attained among the Indian tribes of
northeastern North America, and for its long continued alliance
with the English in their wars with the French. Hiawatha, the
name of one of the founders of the confederation, was adopted by
Longfellow as that of his hero in the poem of the name, though
the story centers about another people, the Chippewa. Lewis H.
Morgan (1851) based his theories regarding the nature of
primitive society, which have played a very important part in
ethnology and sociology, on studies of Iroquois organization. The
name Iroquois has been given to a branch of the Kankakee River,
Ill., to an Illinois County and a village in the same, and to
villages in South Dakota and Ontario. The names of each of the
five constituent tribes have also been widely used.
Mahican. The name means "wolf." This tribe tS not to be confused
with the Mohegan of Connecticut (q. v.), though the names are
mere varieties of the same word. Also called:
Akochakaneh, meaning "Those who speak a strange tongue."
(Iroquois name.)
Canoe Indians, so called by Whites.
Hikanagi or Nhikana, Shawnee name.
Loups, so called by the French.
Orunges, given by Chauvignerie (1736), in Schoolcraft
(1851-57, vol. 3, p. 554).
River Indians, butch name.
Uragees, given by Colden, 1747.
Connections.- The Mahican belonged to the Algonquian lingistic
family, and spoke an r-dialect, their closest connections being
with the southern New England Indians to the east.
Location.- On both banks of the upper Hudson from Catskill Creek
to Lake Champlain and eastward to include the valley of the
Housatonic. (See also Connecticut, Massachusetts, Vermont, and
Wisconsin.)
Subdivision
Mahican proper, in the northern part of the territory.
Mechkentowoon, on the west bank of Hudson River above Catskill
Creek.
Wawyachtonoc, in Dutchess and Columbia Counties and eastward to
the Housatonic River in Connecticut.
Westenhuck (or Housatonic?), near Great Barrington, Mass.
Wiekagjoc, on the eastern bank of the Hudson River near Hudson.
Villages
Aepjin, at or near Schodac.
Kaunaumeek, in New York about halfway betwecn Albany and
Stockbridge, Mass.
Kenunckpacook, on the east side of Housatonic River a little
above Scaticook.
Maringoman's Castle, on Murderer's Creek, at Bloominggrove,
Ulster County.
Monemius, on Haver Island, in Hudson River near Cohoes Falls,
Albany County.
Nepaug, on Nepaug River, town of New Hartford, Litchfield County,
Conn.
Peantam, at Bantam Lake, Litchfield County, Conn.
Potic, west of Athens, Greene County.
Scaticook, 3 villages in Dutchess and Rensseler Counties, and in
Litchfield County, Conn., the last on Housatonic River near the
junction with Ten Mile River.
Wequadnack, near Sharon, Litchfield County, Conn.
Wiatiac, near Salisbury, Litchfield County, Conn.
Wiltmeet, on Esopus Creek, probably near Kingston.
Winooskeek, on Lake Champlain, probably at the mouth of Winooski
River, Vt.
Wyantenuc, in Litchfield County, Conn.
History.- The traditional point of origin of the Mahican was in
the West. They were found in occupancy of the territory outlined
above by the Dutch, and were then at war with the Mohawk who, in
1664, compelled them to move their capital from Schodac near
Albany to the present Stockbridge. They gradually sold their
territory and in 1721 a band was on Kankakee River, Ind., while
in 1730, a large body settled close to the Delaware and Munsee
near Wyoming, Pa., afterward becoming merged with those tribes.
In 1730 those in the Housatonic Valley were gathered mto a
mission at Stockbridge and were ever afterward known as
Stockbridge Indians. In 1756 a large body of Mahican and
Wappinger, along with Nanticoke and other people, settled in
Broome nnd Tioga Counties under Iroquois protection. In 1788
anothcr body of Indians drawn from New York, Connecticut, and
Rhode Island, including Mahican, settled near the Stockbridges at
Marshall, N. Y. The Stockbridge and Brotherton Indians later
removed to Wisconsin, where they were probably joined by part at
least of the band last mentioned. A fear Mahican remained about
their old home on Hudson River for some years after the
Revolution but disappeared unnoticed.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates that there were about 3,000
Mahican m 1600; the Stockbridg's among the Iroquois numbered 300
in 1796, and 606 in 1923, including some Munsee. The census of
1910 gave 533 Stockbridges and 172 Brotherton. The census of 1930
indicated about 813.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Mahican tribe
has probably attamed more fame from its appearance in the title
of Cooper's novel. "The Last of the Mohegans," than from any
circumstance directly connected with its history. There is a
village called Mohegan in the northem part of Westchester County,
N. Y., and another, known as Mohican in Ashland County, Ohio,
while an affluent of the Muskingum also bears the same name.
Mohegan. (See Connecticut.)
Montauk. Meaning "uncertain."
Connections.- The Montauk belonged to the Algonquian linguistic
family and spoke an r-dialect like that of the Wappinger.
Location.- In the eastern and central parts of Long Island.
Subdivisions
Cochaug, in Riverhead and Southold Townships.
Manhasset, on Shelter Island.
Massapequa, in the southern part of Oyster Bay and Huntington
Townships.
Matinecock, in the townships of Flushing, North Hempstead, the
northern part of Oyster Bay and Huntington, and the western part
of Smithtown.
Merric, in the eastern part of Hempstead Township.
Montauk proper, in Southampton Township.
Nesaquake, in the eastern part of Smithtown and the territory
east of it.
Patchogne, on the southern coast from Patchogue to Westhampton.
Rockaway, in Newtown, Jamaica, and Hempstead Townships.
Secatogue, in Islip Township.
Setauket, on the north shore from Stony Brook to Wading River.
Shinnecock, on the coast from Shinnecock Bay to Montauk Point.
Villages
Aquebogue, on a creek entering the north side of Great Peconic
Bay.
Ashamomuck, on the site of a White town of the same name in
Suffolk County.
Cutchogue, at Cutchogue in Suffolk County.
Massapequa, probably at Fort Neck.
Mattituck, on the site of the present Mattituck, Suffolk County.
Merric, on the site of Merricks, Queens County.
Montauk, above Fort Pond, Suffolk County.
Nesaquake, at the present Nissequague, about Smithtown, Suffolk
County.
Patchogue, near the present Patchogue, Sulfolk County.
Rechqunakie, near the present Rockaway.
There were also villages at Flushing, Glen Cove, Cold Spring,
Huntington, Cow Harbor, Fireplace, Mastic, Moriches, Westhampton,
and on Hog Island in Rockaway Bay.
History.- The Montauk were in some sense made tributary to the
Pequot, until the latter were destroyed, when they were subjected
to a series of attacks by the Narraganset and took refuge, about
1759, with the Whites at Easthampton. They had, meanwhile, lost
the greater part of their numbers by pestilence and, about 1788,
most of those that were left went to live with the Brotherton
Indians in New York. A very few remained on the island, whose
mixed-blood descendants are still officially recognized as a
tribe by the State of New York, principally under the name
Shinnecock.
Population.- Including Canarsee, the Montauk are estimated by
Mooney (1928) at 6,000 in 1600. In 1658-59 an estimate gives
about 500; in 1788, 162 were enumerated; in 1829, 30 were left on
Long Island; in 1910, 167 "Shinnecock," 29 "Montauk," and 1
"Possepatuck." In 1923, 250 were returned, including 30 Montauk,
200 Shinnecock, and 20 Poospatock (Patchoag).
Connection in which they have become noted.- The name of the
Montauk is perpetuated in that of the easternmost point of land
on Long Island, a post village in the same county, and one in
Dent County, Mo. They were among those tribes most active in the
manufacture of siwan or wampum.
Neutrals. So called by the French because they remained neutral
during the later wars between the Iroquois and Huron. Also
called:
Hatiwanta-runh, by Tuscarora, meaning "Their speech is
awry"; in form it is close to the names applied by the other
Iroquois tribes and more often quoted as Attiwandaronk.
Connections.- The Neutrals belonged to the Iroquoian linguistic
stock; their position within this is uncertain.
Location.- In the southern part of the province of Ontario, the
westernmost part of New York, in northeastern Ohio, and in
southeastern Michigan. (See also Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and
Canada.)
Subdivisions
It seems impossible to separate these from the names of the
villages, except perhaps in the cases of the Aondironon (in
Ontario bordering Huron territory), and the Ongniaahra (see
below).
Villages
There were 28, but only the names of the following have been
preserved:
Kandoucho, in Ontario near the Euron country, i. e., in the
northern part of Neutral territory.
Khioetoa, apparently a short distance east of Sandwich, Ontario.
Ongniaahra, probably on the site of Youngstown, N Y.
Ounontisaston, not far from Niagara River.
Teotongniaton, in Ontario.
History.- Shortly after the destruetion of the Huron, the
Noutrals became involved in hostilities with the Iroquois and
were themselves destroyed in 1650-51, most of them evidently
being incorporated with their conquerors, though an independent
body is mentioned as wintering near Detroit in 1653.
Population.- The Neutrals were estimated by Mooney (1928) to
number 10,000 in 1600; in 1653 the independent remnant included
800. They were probably incorporated finally with the Iroquois
and Wyandot.
Connection in which they have liecome noted.- The chief claim of
the Neutrals to permanent fame is the fact that the name of one
of their subdivisions, the Ongniaahra, became fixed, in the form
Niagara, to the world-famous cataract between New York and
Ontario.
Saponi. Some years after leaving Fort Christanna, Va., the Saponi
settled among the Iroquois and were formally adopted by the
Cayuga tribe in 1753. (See Virginia.)
Tuscarora. After their defeat in the Tuscarora War, 1712-13,
bands of this tribe began moving north and in course of time the
majority settled in New York so that the Iroquois came to be
known afterwards as the "Six Nations" instead of the "Five
Nations." (See North Carolina.)
Tutelo. The Tutelo accompaniod the Saponi from Virginia and were
adopled by the Cayuga at the same time. (See Virginia.)
Wappinger. From the same root as Abnaki and Wampanoag, and
meaning "Easterners"
Connections.- The Wappinger belonged to tho Algonquian linguistic
family and spoke an r-dialect, their nearest allies being the
Mahican, the Montauk, and next the New England tribes.
Location.- The east bank of the Hudson River from Manhattan
Island to Poughkeepsie and the territory eastward to the lower
Connecticut Valley. (See also Connecticut.)
Subdivisios or "Sachemship"
Hammonasset, west of the Connecticut River Conn., at its mouth.
Kitchawank, in the northern part of Westchester County beyond
Croton River and between Hudson River and the Connecticut.
Massaco, in the present towns of Simsbury and Canton on
Farmington River, Conn.
Menunkatuck, in the present town of Guilford, Conn.
Nochpeem, in the southern part of Dutchess County, N. Y.
Paugusset, in the eastern part of Fairfield County and the
western edge of New Haven County, Conn.
Podunk, in the eastern part of Hartford County, Conn., east of
Connecticut River.
Poquonock, in the towns of Windsor, Locks, and
Bloomfield, Hartford County, Conn.
Quinnipiac, in the central part of New Haven County, Conn.
Sicaog, in Hartford and West Hartford, Conn.
Sintsink, between Hudson, Croton, and Pocantico Rivers.
Siwanoy, in Westchester County and part of Fairfield County,
Conn., between the Bronx and Five Mile River.
Tankiteke, mainly in Fairfield County, Conn., between Five Mile
River and Fairfield and extending inland to Danbury and even into
Putnam and Dutchess Counties, N. Y.
Tunxis, in the southwestern part of Hartford County, Conn.
Wangunk, on both sides of Connecticut River from the Hartford
city line to about the southern line of the town of Haddam.
Wappinger proper, about Poughkeepsie in Dutchess County, N. Y,
Wecquaesgeek, between the Hudson, Bronx, and Pocantico Rivers.
Villages
Alipconk, in the Weckquasgeek sachemdom, on the site of
Tarrytown, N. Y.
Appaquag, on the Hockanum River east of Hartford, Conn., in the
Podunk sachemdom.
Aspetuck, near the present Aspetuck in Fairfield County, Conn.,
in the Tankiteke sachemdom.
Canopus, in Canopus Hollow, Putnam County.
Capage, near Beacon Falls on Naugatuck River, Conn., in the
Paugusset sachemdom.
Cassacuhque, near Minnus in the town of Greenwich, Conn., Siwanoy
sachemdom.
Cockaponset, near Haddam in Middlesex County, Conn., in the
Wangunk sachemdom.
Coginchaug, near Durham, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom.
Cossonnacock, near the line between the towns of Haddam and Lyme,
Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom.
Cupheag, given as the probable name of a town at Stratford,
Conn., but this was perhaps Pisguheege.
Hockanum, at the mouth of Hockanum River, Hartford County, Conn.,
in the Podunk sachemdom.
Keskistkonk, probably on Hudson River, south of the highlands, in
Putnam County, in the Nochpeem sachemdom.
Kitchiwank, about the mouth of Croton River, N. Y., in the
Kitchiwank sachemdom.
Machamodus, on Salmon River in Middlesex County, Conn., in the
Wangunk sachemdom.
Massaco, near Simsbury on Farmington River, Conn., in the Massaco
sachemdom.
Mattabesec, on the site of Middletown, Conn., in the Wangunk
sachemdom.
Mattacomacok, near Rainbow in the town of Windsor, Conn., in the
Wangunk sachemdom.
Mattianock, at the mouth of Farmington River in the Poquonock
sachemdom.
Menunketuck, at Guilford, Conn., in the Menunketuck sachemdom.
Meshapock, near Middlebury, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom.
Mioonktuck, near New Haven, Conn., in the Quinnipiac sachemdom.
Namaroake, on Connecticut River in the town of East Windsor,
Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom.
Naubuc, near Glastonbury, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom.
Naugatuck, near Naugatuck, Conn., in the Paugussett snchemdom.
Newashe, at the mouth of Scantic River, in the Podunk sachemdom.
Nochpeem, in the southern part of Dutchess County.
Noroaton, at the mouth of Noroton River, in the Siwanoy
sachemdom.
Norwauke, at Norwalk, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom.
Ossingsing, at the site of Ossining, N. Y.
Pahquioke, near Danbury, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.
Pashesauke, on Lyndes Neck at the mouth of the Connecticut River
in the Hammonassett sachemdom.
Pasquasheck, probably on the bank of Hudson River in Dutchess
County.
Pataquasak, near Essex Post Office, Conn., in the Hammonassett
sachemdom.
Pattaquonk, near Chester, Conn., in the Hammo,nassett sachemdom.
Paugusset, on the bank of Housatonic River about 1 mile above
Derby, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom.
Pauquaunuch, in Stratford Township, Fairfield County, Paugusset
sachemdom, apparently the same town as Pisquheege.
Pequabuck, near Bristol, Conn., in the Tunxis sachemdom.
Pisquheege, near Stratford, Fairfield County, in the Paugusset
sachemdom.
Pocilaug, on Long Island Sound near Westbrook, Conn., in the
Hammonassett sachemdom.
Pocowset, on Connecticut River opposite Middletown, Conn., in the
Wangunk sachemdom.
Podunk, at the mouth of Podunk River, Conn., in the Podunk
sachemdom.
Pomeraug, near Woodbury, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom.
Poningo, near Rye, N. Y, in the Siwanoy sachemdom.
Poquannuc, near Poquonock in Hartford County, Conn., in the
Poquonock sachemdom.
Potatuck, the name of one or two towns on or near Potatuck River,
in the town of Newtown, Fairfield County, Conn., in the Paugusset
sachemdom.
Pyquag, near Wethersfield, Conn., in the Wangunk sachemdom.
Quinnipiac, on Quinnipiac River north of New Haven, Conn., in the
Quinnipiac sachemdom.
Ramapo, near Ridgefield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.
Sackhoes, on the site of Peekskill, N. Y., in the Kitchawank
sachemdom.
Saugatuck, at the mouth of Saugatuck River, Conn., in the
Tankiteke sachemdom.
Scanticook, on Scantic River near its junction with Broad Brook,
Hartford County, Conn., in the Podunk sachemdom.
Senasqua, at the mouth of Croton River, in the Kitchawank
sachemdom.
Shippan, near Stamford, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom.
Sioascauk, near Greenwich, Conn., in the Siwanoy sachemdom.
Squantuck, on the Housatonic River, above Derby, Conn., in the
Paugussett sachemdom.
Suckinuk, near W. Hartford, Conn., in the Sicaog sachemdom.
Titicus, near Titicus in the town of Ridgefield, Conn., in the
Tankiteke sachemdom.
Totoket, near Totoket in the town of N. Branford, New Haven
County, Conn., in the Quinnipiac sachemdom.
Tunxis, in the bend of Farmington River near Farmington, Conn.,
in the Tunxis sachemdom.
Turkey Hill, near Derby, Conn., in the Paugussett sachemdom,
perhaps given under another name.
Unkawa, between Danbury and Bethel, Conn., in t,he Tankiteke
sachemdom.
Weantinock, near Fairfield, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.
Wecquaesgeek, at Dobbs Ferrg, in the Wecquaesgeek sachemdom.
Weataug, near Weatogue in the town of Simsbury, Conn., in the
Massaoo sachemdom.
Wepowaug, near Milford, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom.
Werawaug, near Danbury, Conn., in the Tankiteke sachemdom.
Woodtick, near Woodtick in the town of Wolcott, New Haven County
Conn., in the Tunxis sachemdom.
Woronock, near Milford, Conn., in the Paugusset sachemdom,
evidently another name for Wepowaug.
History.- The Wappinger were found by Henry Hudson in 1609 in
occupancy of the lands above mentioned. The Connecticut bands
gradually sold their territory and joined the Indians at
Scaticook and Stockbridge. The western bands suffered heavily in
war with the Dutch, 1640-45, but continued to occupy a tract
along the coast in Westchester County until 1756, when most of
those who were left joined the Nanticoke at Chenango, Broome
County, N. Y., and were finally merged, along with them, into the
Delaware. Some joined the Moravian and Stockbridge Indians while
a few were still living in Dutchess County in 1774, and a few
mixed-bloods live now on Housatonic River below Kent. These
belong to the old Scaticook settlement founded by a Pequot Indian
named Mauwehu or Mahwee, and settled mainly by individuals of the
Paugusset, Unkawa, and Potatuck towns of the Paugusset sachemdom.
Population.- Mooney (1928) estimates the population of the New
York divisions of Wappinger at about 3,000 in 1600, and places
that of the various Connecticut bands at 1,750, a total of 4,750.
The war with the Dutch is said to have cost the western bands
1,600, but we have no estimates of their population at a later
date, except as parts of the Stockbridge, Brotherton, and
Iroquois Indians, and a few mixed-bloods at Scaticook, Conn., a
few miles below Kent.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Wappinger bands
were among those particularly engaged in the manufacture of siwan
or wampum. They occupied much of the mainland territory of the
present Greater New York but not Manhattan Island. Wappingers
Falls in Dutchess County, N.Y., preserves the name.
Wenrohronon. Probably meaning "The people or tribe of the place
of floating scum," from the famous oil spring of the town of
Cuba, Allegany County.
Connections.- The Wenrohronon belonged to the Iroquoian
linguistic stock. Their closest affiliations were probably with
the Neutral Nation, which part of them finally joined, and with
the Erie, who bounded them on the west.
Location.- Probably originally, as indicated in the explanation
of their name, about the oil spring at Cuba, N. Y. (See also
Pennsylvania.)
History.- The Wenrohronon maintained themselves for a long time
in the above territory, thanks to an alliance with the Neutral
Nation, but when the protection of the latter was withdrawn, they
left their country in 1639 and took refuge among the Hurons and
the main body of the Neutrals, whose fate they shared.
Popultion.- Before their decline Hewitt (in Hodge, 1910)
estimates the Wenrohronon at between 1,200 and 2,000. Those who
sought refuge with the Hurons in 1639 numbered more than 600.
Connection in which they have become noted.- The Wenrohronon are
noted merely on account of their association with the oil spring
above mentioned.
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